Mathematics Peacefully, Working On An Assignment For My Math

I sit in the library peacefully, working on an assignment for my math. Trigonometry: a bit hard, but fun. I continue to sip on my leaf water out of my nice cat mug; the one with a cat and under it the word ‘ Catffeinated’ on it. Then Stephaniey, the daughter of the biggest man in the city, comes over. â€Å"Hello, Stephaniey.† â€Å"Ah hello, friend. Could I see your tea set?† She points at the box by my backpack, a clear mocking tone to the word ‘ friend’, but I pass it off as a mishearing. I have the set with me today because my chem lab teacher was interested in my collection, as he, too, is a collector. â€Å"Yeah, sure, I guess.† She opens the box, removes the protective padding, and picks up a cup. She lifts it up to the light for what I think†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"FUCKING SHIT!† I howl out as pain explodes from my face. I reach up toward her legs, causing more discomfort. With a firm grasp, I flip her over onto the floor. In the process, I get up, my body hunched over hers. The blood on my face drips onto her. Screeches of horror come out of her mouth. â€Å"AH, YOUR BLOODS GETTING ON MY DESIGNER CLOTHING!† â€Å"Alright, I wasn’t too mad at the cup breaking, but PUSHING MY FACE INTO ITS SHARDS WAS WAYYY TO FAR!† â€Å"Eh so, it doesn’t matter. Cause you’ll be in trouble and won’t be able to run for head councilman.† â€Å"That’s what this is about?!?† â€Å"Of course, what else?† â€Å"That’s such a dumb reason, I don’t really care about the place. Also Jennifer is more likely than the both of us.† â€Å"Nuh uh, she can’t run, she’s been hospitalized.† â€Å"What!!? She was fine yesterday!† â€Å"She was hi-† â€Å"Both of you to Mr. Moore s Office; take this note with you. You two have disrupted the library’s learning/studying environment.† Mrs. Geoff, the librarian, interrupts us. As I begin to reach for the note, she stops me. â€Å"Oh, no. Mowow, you head straight to the Nurse s office. We’ll take care of the issue after you’re alright, I’ll have a student bring your things to the front office and get a janitor for the glass.† She gives me a warm smile, having watched the event unfold, but not being able to stop it right away. She knows I didn’t start it or partake in the violence. â€Å"Hmmpf.† Stephaniey huffs and starts walking in the opposite direction of Mr.Show MoreRelated111135197X 38570 Essay example17696 Words   |  71 Pages350 of Writing Clearly, Third Edition for answers to the Pre-test. Practice What You Have Learned (pages 21–25) Exercise 1 (page 21) I 1. I have been interested in physics since high school. I 2. Having good social skills is essential for my job, and I decided (OR have decided) to take a class in personal communication. I 3. Since she was a child, she has liked sports, especially water sports, such as swimming and waterskiing. I 4. Mario graduated as a veterinarian in January ofRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesCollege; and Stephanie Tucker, California State University Sacramento. Thinking and writing about logical reasoning has been enjoyable for me, but special thanks go to my children, Joshua, 8, and Justine, 3, for comic relief during the months of writing. This book is dedicated to them. For the 2012 edition: This book is dedicated to my wife Hellan whose good advice has improved the book in many ways. vi Table of Contents Preface.............................................................Read MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesmigration and does not challenge nation-centered depictions of migration history. Scholars have pointed out the numerous failures of borders and migration control, noting their many unintended consequences and great difficulty in counteracting the workings of migrant networks or the broad economic forces that generate migration. But at the same time, no migrant experience can be understood in isolation from the pervasive categories of migration control such as guest worker, permanent resident, familyRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 PagesData A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0 7506 5938 6 For information on all Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at http:/ /books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in Italy Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org Contents Preface Overview of the book’s structure 1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Learning objectives The nature of marketing The

Massive Changes During the Reconstruction Era of America

As a country, America has gone through many political changes. Leaders have come and gone, all of them having different objectives and plans for the future. One period of time in which leaders sought change was 1865 which was the time period known as Reconstruction. Reconstruction was a time period of many different leaders, different goals and different accomplishments. Many debate whether Reconstruction was a success or failure. Success is an event which accomplishes its intended purpose, which Reconstruction did, but during this process of accomplishment, evil came about. There was many good things that came from the Reconstruction era which leads me to believe that it was a success, these accomplishments were; Reunification of the Union , more laws came about along with the protection of African Americans and the Enforcement acts, the Freedmens Bureau was created along with an education system, and the Compromise of 1877. Lincolns main goal was to reunite the Union after the North had won and demolished most of the South. Lincoln wanted to reunite the North and South but the South didnt want to join a slave free north. Lincoln came up with the 10 percent plan which required 10 percent of the state’s population to vote to be loyal to the North and then that state would have to create a new government. The southern states combated this plan with the Wade-Davis Bill which stated that reconstruction would be handed over to congress and the Southern StatesShow MoreRelatedThe End Of The 20th Century1544 Words   |  7 PagesCivil War to the end of the 20th century has changed drastically when you asses America on an economic, social, and political level. The changes between the end of the 19th century and the end of the 20th century are the cause in the way America has been shaped and how American’s think. In fact, industrialization and urbanization, equal rights for all citizens, and tw o world wars played a major role in the shape of America to our understanding. Although, there are numerous events that have shaped theRead MoreThe Legacy Of Reconstruction During The Civil War Essay1254 Words   |  6 Pages America has gone though many political changes since its birth as a nation. Many presidents have come and gone, trying to bring about change, thus creating revolutionary moments in this country’s history. These â€Å"revolutionary movements† have created lasting impressions on the United States that helped mold the nation that it is today. One such movement was Reconstruction. Reconstruction was a time in America consisting of reuniting the country and pulling it from the economic catastrophe that stemmedRead MoreDemographic Changes in America (1607-1914)1167 Words   |  5 PagesDemographic Changes in America (1607-1914) Historical records of American demography start with the settlement of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Puritans landed in Plymouth and made a home for themselves with the help of Native Americans. These first immigrants in the colonies (British, Dutch, and German), moved to America between the early 17th and late 18th centuries in what was known as Old Immigration. During the colonial period, the birth rate was high but the life expectancy was low. It wasRead MoreU.S. History 1865 to 1945 Worksheet Essay1175 Words   |  5 PagesU.S. History 1865 to 1945 Worksheet Matrices Using the information from your textbook and classroom discussion complete the following matrices. 1. Era of Reconstruction Matrix While completing the Matrix, contrast presidential reconstruction plans with congressional reconstruction. Note key people, major dates, policies, and outcomes for the New South. If necessary, additional rows may be added to the matrix. Plan Key People Dates Policies Outcomes Lincoln’s 10%Plan Abraham Lincoln AndrewRead MoreWhite Resistance to the Civil Rights Movement Essay1503 Words   |  7 PagesCivil Rights Throughout Reconstruction, southern whites felt constantly threatened by legislation providing rights for former slaves. The Civil Rights Bill of 1875 was the last rights bill passed by congress during reconstruction. It protected all Americans’ (including blacks) access to public accommodations such as trains. With the threat of complete equality constantly looming, violence toward former slaves gradually increased in the years following the Civil War. 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How to Control an Over Population Country Free Essays

In the late 1960s and early 1970s some environmentalists began making a sensational claim. The world†s ever increasing population, they claimed, would soon outstrip the planet†s limited resources leading to an environmental disaster. In these doom and gloom scenarios, a massive worldwide famine was just around the corner. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Control an Over Population Country or any similar topic only for you Order Now The number of people would keep increasing while the amount of food available would stay the same or even decline. The result, the experts argued, was famine by the early 1980s at the latest. The only way to decrease the severity of the impending disaster was to adopt strict policies to control population. There will soon be 6 billion human beings on Earth: according to the latest population estimates released by the United Nations. At this rate, the world population is doubling every 40 years. On October 12, 1999 the world’s population will reach 6,000,000,000 people. The overpopulation is a very vast subject, but my assignment will only explain the three major points of the overpopulation. The biggest concern of human beings is the decreasing rate of resources, as the years go by, resources are on a constant decline. Which means in a couple of years, if the population continuous to increase, are resources will disappear in a short term of time. Also, I will try to explain the reasons why this subject became what it is now . Why did did the population increase so much in the past decades, will be answered. And finally, will be looking at solutions to solve this problem in ethical and unethical ways. If everyone on the planet today would adopt a North American lifestyle, natural resources would quickly disappear. Luckily most nations are still careful. They will need to remain so while improving their standard of living. It will be necessary that others in wealthy nations curb their consumption and wastes. Our survival depends on population control as well as a better management of natural resources. Being limited in quantity, natural resources need to be managed accordingly. A new management of the planet’s resources has to be planned. In spite of the population increase, famines have become less frequent in the past two hundred years, thanks to phenomenal agricultural yields, and global economy. In the last few years several African countries have been affected by famine. The causes were all due to political problems, including civil wars, that disorganize the economy, paralyze transportation, and prevent emergency food drops to reach their destination. Famine is no longer due to a global food shortage. Everyone’s probably heard predictions that the world is going to run out of some essential resource. From copper to oil to food to hundreds of other things human beings use, â€Å"experts† like to come along and predict the imminent exhaustion of resources. The last two centuries have proven not only these individuals, but the very models underlining scarcity of resources, to be wrong. For example, food. Several times over the last 40 years so called â€Å"experts† predicted global famine because increases in food production couldn’t possibly keep up with population growth. Thankfully, they were wrong. The best indications today are that food production will continue to outpace population growth for the foreseeable future statistics say. A other example is oil. Predictions of the world using up all its oil have been around for at least 70 years. They reached their peak in the 1970s with the oil crisis brought on by the Oil and Petroleum Exporting Countries’ attempt to raise oil prices by voluntarily limiting supply . As the price rises, however, the quantity demanded by consumers decreases. As the price of gasoline increases, for example, consumers will tend to purchase more fuel efficient automobiles or find automobiles which use fuel sources not dependent on oil. This does not require any great leap in technology; there are already numerous alternatives to oil which would become economically feasible if the price of oil ever jumped significantly. Natural gas, for example, is likely to replace oil as the primary source of energy for the future sometime in the next century. In 1994 one of every two people lived in the city, while only one in ten did so in 1900. For hundreds of thousands of years the human population was growing at a low but steadily increasing rate. Then in less than 200 years, the world population went from 1 billion to 6 billion people. Why? Because the balance between birth and death has been broken. The recent global population growth is not the consequence of ncreased birth rates but of an unprecedented decrease in death rate. The 20th century has resulted in victory over famine-related and infant mortality, as well as significant advances in public health and medicine. In the world, five women give birth every second. UN projections show that, in the next 50 years, family planning would be widely used all over the world and birth rate would become universally low. Simultaneously, average life expectancy would reach at least 70 years. Population growth would then start to slow down until it stabilized around the end of the next century. A century from now the world population will probably reach 10 to 15 billion people. Will the world be a nice place to live in? Specialists have mixed opinions. Optimists think that the planet can accommodate a much larger population. Others, more pessimistic, predict catastrophes before ever reaching this number. Researchers have looked for years to find solutions to fight the the overpopulation, but we can†t just except any solutions. Governments can†t just tell the population to stop giving birth, it would be a horrifying reaction from is people. Here are some solutions from researchers that are ethical and unethical. In some countries, particularly Africa, the AIDS epidemic has reached devastating proportions. In the most affected country, Zambia, nearly one in five women of childbearing age is infected. The death rate has already increased by 50%. Eventhough mortality has increased, it has remained less than the birthrate and the population has not decreased. No other country has seen its population decrease because of the AIDS virus, and there is little chance for this to ever happen. There are, however, serious problems concerning the distribution of the earth’s goods. But this poor distribution is the result of sin, not overpopulation. Many of the world’s calamities and starvation problems are caused by political corruption within Third World countries and a lack of generosity on the part of those individuals and nations with greater abundance. With modern agricultural equipment, adequate food storage facilities, and technology to ensure clean drinking water, Third World countries like India could make great strides in becoming self-sufficient; and developed countries like the United States could help provide these improvements. Many people who support abortion claim overpopulation as a major reason why abortion is not only a right, but a necessity. They claim that because of the enormous amount of people in the world, if all mothers kept their children within their womb, there would not be enough land and food to provide for them. But is this a ethical way of solving problems†¦ Overpopulation is the root cause of all environmental deterioration. Global warming, the ozone hole, rain forest destruction, desertification and all kinds of pollution, weather breakdown, and natural disasters are only signs of this already deadly monster. Population grows exponentially. That is, each generation is a little bigger than the generation before, and so more people have more children, and the next generation is bigger yet. Population grows faster and faster. On the other hand, food production is limited by available farmland, water for irrigation, and so on, and so cannot grow without limit. Food production grows more and more slowly. Therefore, it inevitably follows that as population continues to grow faster while food production grows more slowly, sooner or later population will outstrip food supply, and it just will not be possible to feed all the people. Human societies will always face significant challenges and problems to overcome. New diseases will almost certainly emerge over the next century, as they have ever since human beings began living in large groups. Technological upheaval and change will be the rule rather than the exception. But provided that democracy and freedom continue to spread around the globe, albeit at a sometimes incredibly slow pace, we should expect the 21st century to be a much better place to live to the same degree that the 20th century has been immeasurably better for humans than the 19th century was. How to cite How to Control an Over Population Country, Essay examples

Cultural Impact of The Great Gatsby free essay sample

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, written in 1925, depicts a portion of Nick Carraway’s life characterized by the time he is influenced by the mysterious Jay Gatsby and his extensive pursuit of his former flame and Nick’s cousin, Daisy Buchanan. Set in the year 1922, the novel occurs during the thriving period of prosperity in America where materialism set the tone of society as reflected by the main characters’ economic successes. However, Fitzgerald illustrates the price of prosperity as he portrays its negative effects such as the greed, lies, and deceit the characters possess in order to satirize the selfish way many were choosing to live. The characters Fitzgerald portrays represent distinct social groups who ultimately face their own struggles, demonstrating how uncertain the culture of the 1920s really was. Because he creates characters that personify the American Dream, juxtaposes western and eastern American cultures, incorporates examples of law breaking under Prohibition, and depicts the corruption of the wealthy, Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby as a reflection of America’s culture in the early twentieth century by highlighting the culture’s successes and failures. Fitzgerald’s illustration of the American Dream within his characters directly echoed the society’s high-esteemed qualities of success and delight. In the time period immediately following the Civil War until the Great Depression, America experienced a period of rapid growth and fortune, especially located in this novel’s setting, New York (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Novels 74). A mentionable character representing the American Dream was Jordan Baker and her representation of women’s independence. The 1920s marked a key time of change in the social status of women as so called â€Å"flappers† defied the traditional norms for conduct and dress, and women finally received the right to vote (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Novels 74). Jordan is direct and critical all while being collected and intelligent; she defies the typical standard of the effervescent, submissive women of her time and instead represents a new breed of women, all standardized by the future of American prosperity and affluence. In addition, Gatsby himself also perfectly personifies one who represents all things pertaining to the American Dream: wealth, happiness, and prosperity; he is able to attain his success while chasing after his perfect girl, Daisy. The son of deprived farmers, Gatsby had built himself up from practically nothing, and he â€Å"sprang from his Platonic conception of himself† into a man who truly represented the American Dream (Fitzgerald 98). Modeled after his closest friend and mentor, Dan Cody, who also was a self-made man, Gatsby acquired a vast amount of wealth and fortune with perseverance and a fixed purpose in mind. This desire of Americans to reach such a high social status and level of attainment was no better displayed through the ability that Gatsby possessed as he faithfully stuck to the conception of himself he desired to be and eventually obtained it. In addition to the perception of the American Dream, the opposing cultures of the Midwest and Eastern regions of the United States are depicted by Fitzgerald and embody the characters’ morals. Nick began his life in the Midwest and always regards it as his home and the place where he belongs, which is directly reflected in his unhappiness and ability to see the corruption of those who reside in the East; conversely, Tom, Daisy, and Gatsby all have roots in the Midwest, were drawn to the East, and remain there, blind to the horrors occurring in their daily lives. To Nick, the way that Tom, Daisy, and Gatsby line up morally â€Å"correlates with their geographical choice of lifestyle† (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Novels 73); in other words, Nick’s unsophistication and simplicity reflect his admiration for the Midwest just as Tom’s, Daisy’s and Gatsby’s materialistic and immoral behaviors mirror their affinity for the fast-paced life of New York. As further proof of Nick’s morals, he declines Gatsby’s reward for reuniting him with Daisy, a risky business deal that would provide Nick with a surplus of money, as he realizes its faults, and he retains his dignity. As Nick continues to realize, although the East appears to glitter with fascinating opportunities and excitement, it lacks the strong moral values encompassed in those like himself from the Midwest. Ironically enough, Nick resides in West Egg while Tom and Daisy reside in East Egg, this being analogous to where they find their moral values and happiness. Overall, the cultures in the East and Midwest are represented clearly through the characters’ actions, decisions, and values throughout the novel as examples of Fitzgerald’s way of highlighting social flaws. Alongside the juxtaposition of the Midwest and the East, Fitzgerald also reflects the culture of the 1920’s with descriptions of Prohibition and the law breaking that came as a result. Historically speaking, with influential leaders of temperance movements that believed in the dangers of alcohol and its ability to disrupt families, the Volstead Act was put into effect outlawing the â€Å"manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors† (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Literature 147). However, the act was greatly ignored by Americans who continued to drink on a regular basis as shown in Gatsby’s extravagant parties where alcohol is in abundance. Gatsby is accurately accused of being a â€Å"bootlegger† by those who attend his parties as he displays no signs of difficulty acquiring liquor and breaking the law (Fitzgerald 17). Most suppliers of alcohol during Prohibition were highly esteemed since one who could live on the edge and â€Å"without restraint† was admired (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Literature 151). In spite of this, Gatsby is actually more ignored and used as opposed to honored. His efforts to reacquaint himself with Daisy through massive parties instead prove to be areas where those yearning for liquor could obtain their desired alcohol with little to no regard toward their host; this is exemplified in the fact that Owl Eyes is the only character other than Nick to attend both Gatsby’s lavish parties and his funeral. Fitzgerald illustrates the era of Prohibition by displaying Gatsby’s flagrant misuse of the law, which only results in his own demise and failure as he perishes the same way he entered the city of New York with himself being his only true friend. Together with the examples of deceit under Prohibition, Fitzgerald’s novel was inspired by the corruption of certain Americans during the 1920s as reflected in the actions and deceit used by the major characters he created. A prime example of such an immoral character is Meyer Wolfsheim who, as Gatsby nonchalantly stated, â€Å"fixed the World Series back in 1919† (Fitzgerald 73); the character of Wolfsheim acts as a representation of the man who was actually responsible for the crime, Arnold Rothstein. This so called â€Å"Black Sox Fix† proved to be an enormous scandal in the early twentieth century as Rothstein, Wolfsheim in the novel, was able to get away with committing the crime with clever and crooked smarts while obtaining a large sum of money. Similar to Wolfsheim’s unethical lifestyle, the character of Tom Buchanan also proves to reflect the judgmental attitudes of several biased and racist people in the novel’s era with his claims that â€Å"civilization is going to pieces† and â€Å"if we don’t look out, the white race will be . . . utterly submerged† (Fitzgerald 13). Ironically, with Wolfsheim being a powerful Jewish man who is more successful than Tom, his perceived fears become a reality (â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Literary 271); despite his unethical conclusions of other races, Tom struggles with the fact that he cannot combat the future success of others as proof of his immoral values. Tom’s unethical conduct is further reflected in several other characters in The Great Gatsby who resort to lying in order to reach success, which ultimately leads to their demise. Myrtle’s affair with Tom is her approach of taking advantage of him to reach an extravagant lifestyle, Daisy allows Gatsby to take the blame for Myrtle’s death without regret, and Gatsby changes his whole name and way of life in order to feel personally accomplished; all eventually realize that the happiness they expected to receive in the end resulted in misery, especially with the deaths of Myrtle and Gatsby. The journey to reaching a fulfilling life and the American Dream came with struggles, and many people resorted to crime and dishonest behavior as a way to circumvent their actual problems. Fitzgerald’s characters that each selfishly overcome different hardships with corrupt solutions represent the immoral mindset of success-hungry people in the 1920s proving that the culture of Fitzgerald’s time was accurately mirrored in his novel. Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby in the â€Å"Roaring Twenties,† an era largely influenced by gaudiness, independence, and corruptness, which is immediately reflected in the central characters and events that occur in the novel’s plot. The book will always be considered a great classic in American literature for its exceptional plot and the themes it conveys. Fitzgerald incorporates the topics surrounding his era into this classic of the American Dream, the contrasting cultures of the Midwest and East, the struggles under Prohibition, and the immoral behaviors exemplified throughout the nation. Fitzgerald captured this period of rapid post-war growth and the frenzy surrounding the era with insightful examples of the deleterious effects of superficial behavior. He accurately describes and critiques this materialistic society in order to leave a lasting impact on the public to recognize the inevitable failure of their economy and success waiting. ? Works Cited

Rich And Poor Essays - Corporate Finance, Social Philosophy

Rich And Poor The United States is the most developed capitalist economy in the world. The markets within the economy provide profit-motivated companies endless potential in the pursuance of pecuniary accumulation. Throughout the twentieth-century competitive companies have implemented modernized managerial procedures designed to raise profits by reducing unnecessary costs. These cost-saving procedures have had a substantial effect on society and particularly members of the working class. Managers and owners of these competitive and self-motivated companies have consistently worked throughout this century to exploit the most controllable component of the production process: the worker. The worker has been forced by the influence of powerful and affluent business owners to work in conditions hazardous to their well being in addition to preposterously menial compensation. It was the masterful manipulation of society and legislation through strategic objectives that the low-wage workers were coerced into this position of destitute. The strategies of the affluent fragment of society were conceived for the selfish purpose of monetary gain. The campaigns to augment the business position within the capitalist economy were designed to weaken organized labor, reduce corporate costs, gain legislative control and reduce international competition at the expense of the working class. The owners have gained and continue to gain considerable wealth from these strategies. To understand why the owners of the powerful companies operate in such a selfish manner, we must look at particular fundamentals of both capitalism and corporation strategy. Once these rudiments are understood, we will more clearly relate the perspective of the profit-seeking corporations of America. Legal discussion will also be included to show how the capital possessing elite operate through political parties to achieve their financial objectives. It is the synergist effect of these numerous strategies that have lead to the widening income gap in America, persistent attempts of contraction in worker's rights and increased corporate political influence. These campaigns have come at an expense to Americans and will only continue to benefit the affluent society. Creating Corporate Value The United States is a capitalist economy. In a capitalist economy individuals who wish to gain wealth can invest their capital into markets in hopes of future returns. If this investment gains in value then the investor has earned a return, which can be reinvested. This creates a cycle of investing and reinvesting for potential future return. This wealth creating cycle is a fairly simple concept to understand, but wealthy individuals have learned to fabricate this cycle into different situations. A common form of investment is purchasing and selling of corporate stocks. The stock market works like all markets on the fundamental theory of supply and demand. The more demand for a stock the higher it is valued and conversely the less demand the less it is valued. Corporations are legal entities which issue stock to investors who purchase them and become shareholders of the company. The risk taken by investors is that when they buy stocks it is possible that the individual company will not do well, or that stock prices will generally weaken. At worst, it is possible to lose entire investments, but no more then that. Therefor, shareholders of a corporation are not responsible for corporate debts. So, a corporation would be a very attractive type of investment for potential investors to consider. Corporations compete against each other in markets in the United States and around the world. These corporations have employees who perform various functions that contribute to successful strategic goal completion. Corporations often will offer stock incentive plans strategically to employees in positions of importance. The enticement to employees is to work in a manner that will increase the value of the company and their shares of stock. These incentive plans were strategically developed by major shareholders because the corporate executives felt that people would be motivated to increase their own wealth. Most employees are motivated by money and will work harder when the chance is given for more money. The very nature of this strategy consolidates all the employees to act as one self-motivated entity in the pursuit of monetary accumulation. In Piven and Cloward's Regulating the Poor, this point is illustrated: "Capitalism, however, relies primarily upon the mechanisms of a market-the promise of financial rewards or penalties-to motivate men and women to work and to hold them to their occupational tasks" (4). The increased motivation of important members of the workforce by the enticing tactics of greed for wealth is a result of strategic planning by the major shareholders of the firm. The cost to these primary shareholders is the stock incentive plans needed additional stock to fulfill, which reduced the

Training Development Essays

Training Development Essays Training Development Essay Training Development Essay Job casualisation and outsourcing have had a detrimental effect on the process of training and development. Some of the major factors that have contributed to this include, a large decreasing number of employees actually taking part in training, major threats to economic stability, decreasing organisational quality, increased levels of competitiveness, skill formations, and the need and the ability to adapt quickly to organisational change. This essay will outline the perspectives of the major stakeholders, comprising of the government, employers and employees and unions, it will show how these stakeholders feel against job casualisation and outsourcing and the negative effect it does have on training and development. Training can be defined as an activity, planned by an organisation, to facilitate the acquisition of skills, rules, concepts or attitudes that improve the performance of its employees (Smith, 1998:4). In New South Wales alone, the government contribution to training and development has decreased beyond astronomical levels, with a drop from 10 per cent to less then two per cent within a 10-year period, the main reason for this large decline is corporatisation and outsourcing (Pickersgill, 2001:125). It is quite evident from this large decline, that training is no longer one the of the major factors being focused on by the New South Wales State Government, and in fact if these levels continue to decrease rapidly, the state government will be left in a worse condition then they already are, with increased levels of lost productivity due to the decline in training expenditure provided by the government. In actual fact training funds have been underspent by over $200m over the past two years, indicating either a shortfall in funded training places or an ignorance of how the employer training system is funded (Connell Burgess, 2001:15). The casual density rate in the workforce has almost doubled in over a ten-year period, according to Campbell (2001) states that the casual density rate has almost doubled from 13. 3 per cent in 1982 to 26. 4 per cent in 1999 (p. 62). This considerable increase impacts on the government in two major ways. In the first instance, increased amounts of training costs have been targeted to the government from employees, and in the second instance, Australian competitiveness levels are in danger of reaching all time lows due to increased levels of outsourcing. Connell Burgess (2001) make emphasis to Pickergills (2001) point in his work that he argues that the data indicates private employers, on average have withdrawn from training investment, either further externalising training costs onto governments and/or individuals, or increasingly drawing on the stock of existing skills through outsourcing and labour hire (Connell Burgess, 2001:16). The attitude emphasised by employers, shows a lack of total dedication to their employees, this could have been caused by perspectives on increasing the profit level for their respective organisations and the elimination about concerns for the long-term effect this would have on the organisation, such as a lack of skills on the employees part or having relied to heavily on the external labour market in the past. Current government regulations need to be updated as major changes have occurred in the industrial relations framework, due to the lack of enthusiasm and monetary involvement from the government, both Federal and State about the levels of training. In the article by Curtain (2001), he explains that non-standard employees have a range of rights and responsibilities that the new employment arrangements require that are not me by the existing industrial relations system (p. 114). He mentions that some of these rights and responsibilities include- transition from education to work, re-employment after job loss, self employed to have equal rights as corporate employees, working times need to meet employees satisfaction, employers to expect that their employees have the skills to carry out their set tasks, and rights related to employer service deliverer responsibilities (ibid). There has been quite a large decline in expenditure for training. Campbell (2001) identifies this point that, casualisation and increased outsourcing may be one crucial factor behind this decline (p. 73). Campbell has indicated that casualisation and outsourcing has no positive impact on training at all, emphasising that it will only cause the Australian economy even more problems, due to lost productivity. Another very important issue that the Government should be taking a keen interest into is the unevenness to the access to employer support training. Curtain (2001) emphasises that as many as 80 per cent of casual employees say that they have fewer opportunities for training than permanent employees (p. 111). This would have to be one of the major causes for the decrease in training levels for casual employees.

The Passage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Passage - Essay Example Today the  platoon  was to  mount  a celebratory parachute display in the Valley of Jezebel. He entered the washroom and, while he waited for a free mirror, brushed his teeth, and though, of pretty girls. In an hour and a half, the preparations would be  complete, and the  platoon  would be  airborne, on its way to its destination. Throngs of  excited  civilians would be waiting for them to  jump, and the girls would be there, too. The drop would take place just outside  Nof  Harish, the kibbutz that was Gideon’s home, where he  had been born  and brought up until the  day  he joined the army. The moment his feet touched the ground, the children of the kibbutz would close around him and  jump  all over him and  shout, â€Å"Gideon, look, here’s our Gideon!† The writer composed the  passage  by describing the  scene  and his thoughts of the main character. The  writer  gives us a  detailed  visual  pictureà ‚  of a boy and includes details of his movements from room to room. The writer describes the thoughts of the boy and what he anticipated.  Every sentence seemed as if the writer was a  true  witness of the actions of the boy, or thoughts of  anticipation  by the boy as seen through the eyes of a narrator.  It  is written  as if the narrator of a  play  was speaking. Without reading the  entire  story, I can conclude that the passage is most likely extracted from  heroic  tale. ... The writer decided to  add  details of the main characters surrounding his thoughts and his hopes. The writer decides to mislead the reader into thinking the boy would be successful as his thoughts are positive. For example, the writer wrote the following: â€Å"Would be complete and the platoon would be airborne, on its way to its destination.† The writer describes a soldier who is  happy  for this day. The writer includes details such as the venue of Independence Day, who will be there and how people will react. In this way, the writer describes the boy’s  character. Later in the story, we realized that this is not what occurred. Instead, the writer wants the reader to believe in the optimism from the main character at the end of this passage. The writer does not  describe  the  character  as a patriot for his country. He  is described  in a way that makes the reader presume that the  character  is doing things for fame and glory from his fam ily, the children of the kibbutz and women. This  character  (soldier) is thinking about his parents, children and women and not what he aspires than to be a hero. The writer conveys this by describing what the  character  is thinking and envisioning. Grammatical and  rhetorical  elements seen in this  passage  are personification. For instance, â€Å"eucalyptus trees and clustering notices commending tidiness and  discipline†.  In this sentence, the  writer  is setting a  scene  of a military base in a way that even the trees are  tidy  and disciplined just like soldiers.  The  writer  also describes everyone including the civilians. He does not just write â€Å"Civilians would be waiting,† instead, the writer writes,

JETBLUE CASE STUDY Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

JETBLUE CASE STUDY - Research Paper Example However, a disturbing fact about turnover of Jetblue is that, far from increased percentages of sales over the years, the percentages are actually falling. Sales for 2006 constituted a 36% increase over 2005, but sales proportion of 2007 is only around 20% increase over 2006. It is imperative that sales growth is consistent through larger quantum of sales and revenues over profitable segments. Coming to variable costs, it is seen that the proportion is larger for variable costs rather than fixed. Aircraft fuel, as expected, holds the largest chunk. Rising fuel prices is one of the principal risks in the airline business. Jet fuel costs were considered the second largest operating cost in the airline industry, after staff costs. Coming to hedging it is seen that occasionally the company should purchase crude oil options contract or swap agreements. These commodity prices are connected with aircraft fuel, making derivative of them effective. These are short term measures designed to co unteract against steep increases in prices of aircraft fuels. Lower distribution costs, lower selling overheads and higher instance of productive output. This has been brought about by use of electronic ticketing and maximum use of internet services for airliners. Only two types of aircrafts in use: The... Coming to variable costs, it is seen that the proportion is larger for variable costs rather than fixed. Aircraft fuel, as expected, holds the largest chunk. Rising fuel prices is one of the principal risks in the airline business. Jet fuel costs were considered the second largest operating cost in the airline industry, after staff costs. Coming to hedging it is seen that occasionally the company should purchase crude oil options contract or swap agreements. These commodity prices are connected with aircraft fuel, making derivative of them effective. These are short term measures designed to counteract against steep increases in prices of aircraft fuels. Four possible reasons on how the company has, up to now, managed and achieved low operating costs are as follows. Lower distribution costs, lower selling overheads and higher instance of productive output. This has been brought about by use of electronic ticketing and maximum use of internet services for airliners. Only two types of aircrafts in use: The Company flies only two types of aircrafts, A320 and Embraer 190. Thus, it is possible for Jetblue to plan and control its operations, servicing and maintenance. Moreover, its pilots are more comfortable flying aircrafts whose technical and flight systems are well known to them and this helps in attaining ultimate flight efficiencies and lower chances of accidents or operational malfunctioning. Higher aircraft utilization: By effective and harmonized scheduling of aircrafts, and well- planned movement control, it is able to spread its fixed costs over a larger number of flights and available seat miles. Some of their aircrafts are on day-and-night

Low Carbon Building Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Low Carbon Building - Essay Example Research suggests that buildings, both residential and commercial, are responsible for more than 38 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions, a figure which has increased rapidly in the recent decades and has the potential to escalate further. In fact, research conducted by Isiadinso et al (2011) indicates that this figure reaches the level of 50 percent for UK buildings. However, this is also the area where most room is available to decrease GHG emissions. In fact, it was the landmark research conducted by Pacala & Socolow (2004), which identified building efficiency as one of the â€Å"stabilization wedges† that could assist in ensuring that carbon emissions could be offset by the year 2050. Over the past few years, experts, scholars and researchers have highlighted the crucial role that construction professionals can play through designing and structuring the buildings, in the first place, as efficient and sustainable as they can be, through space heating, cooling and hot wa ter, lighting and others. As the name suggests, low carbon buildings refer to buildings that are planned and structured in such a way that the carbon emission could be minimised, however, the fact is that, amongst many scholars and experts, there is an ongoing debate between scholars and experts regarding various dimensions of low carbon buildings. In fact, experts even disagree over the definition of a zero carbon or low carbon building and if the same is achievable or not. Williams (2010) takes the liberty of drawing of highlighting the pivotal differences between conventional houses and low impact environment building or autonomous building or PassivHaus design buildings. Where conventional buildings are dependent on the main drainage systems and gas supplies, low impact environmental buildings have independent waste disposal systems and energy services. Conventional buildings do not face any obligation to incorporate renewable energy source installation and energy generation fro m that source during early stages of design, however, low impact environmental buildings have to ensure that they do the integrate a renewable energy source within the design of the building and that also in the early phases of the design. In case of conventional buildings, the requirement for space heating is fulfilled through gas or electric heating systems, but in the case of low carbon buildings, the dependence on gas or electric heating systems for space heating has to be reduced by at least 90 percent. Furthermore, the total amount of energy consumed in the process of space heating typically exceeds the mark of 15 kWh/m2. However, in the case of low carbon buildings, experts agree that this number cannot exceed the 15kwh/m2 mark. Vale and Vale (2002) are amongst the list of scholars and experts that have indirect critiqued the idea and concept of low carbon buildings. They believe that buildings do not have the responsibility to exhibit sustainable and environmentally responsi ble behaviour but people have this moral and ethical responsibility. Therefore, it is not necessary or imperative to create building with low carbon, green or sustainable design but people should mould and alter their lifestyle choices in such a way that their actions generate lesser carbons emissions. A conventional house will have much lesser carbon emissions than a low carbon house, if the people living within that the building are to make sustainable lifestyle choices (p. 485). Ramus & Montiel (2005) highlighting some of the problems associated with the low carbon buildings identified that in many cases, ashamed of their carbon emissions data, most architects disown or

An Analysis Of The National Interest Of India Politics Essay

An Analysis Of The National Interest Of India Politics Essay National Interest is one of the important concepts for a country in International Relations. As a whole, it is defined as survival and security of a state. It mainly focuses on the countrys ambitions in cultural, military and economic backgrounds (Lavy, 1996). Although national interest of a country has different dimensions, we consider security and prosperity as considered as the primary goals. The other dimensions include economic development, advancement in military operations and retention of countrys culture in this modern world. The National Interest differs from country-to-country depending on their primary goals. National Interest is a process which prioritises the main problem in which the country should develop in. India is a country with a billion people population and has different dimensions of thoughts. The need for a particular state is of lowest concern for others. So it is hard and a complex job to prioritise the national interest for the people of India. In this ess ay, let us examine the history of National Interests and also the interests of India. HISTORIC EMERGENCE OF NATIONAL INTEREST: In the early 19th century, national interest was considered as important to that of a religion. This concept of National Interest was introduced by Niccolo Machiavelli but was first seen in practice during the Thirty years war by the French Chief Minister to reduce the increasing power of the Holy Roman Emperor. After these incidents, National Interest became a dominant term in European politics. During the Congress of Vienna, the government practiced the new concept of balance of powers which resulted in balancing the national interest in many countries. The consequences of the balance of powers were devastating and resulted in the First World War, so this concept was replaced by Collective Security. The concept of Collective Security was not successful because United States did not join the League of Nations and the concept was not in the borders of National Interest (Byrd, 1996). Realist and Neo-Realist concepts emerged during the Second World War due to the dominance of power in the world. League of Nations and its idealistic approach was considered as the reason for the formation of fascist states of Germany and Italy who were the causes of Second World War. Nowadays, the concept of National Interest is often related to policies which differentiate the idealistic policies. By differentiating the National Interest with idealistic policies, it paves ways for good foreign policy by relying on multilateral institutions. The term National Interest is used by many countries to prioritise the problems they had been facing in the past and also setting goals for future forecasts. These policies are more or like the ways or processes which have a positive notion for the particular country. Antonio states that National Interest and Law and Order are different from each other and have no importance when combined together (Byrd, 1996). NATIONAL INTERESTS OF INDIA: As the standard definition states that, survival of the state is important for the citizens to pursue happiness and prosperity. India adheres to the standard definition of National Interest. According the above definition, Indias national interest should be framed taking into account its territorial integrity, economic competition from other countries and ways to reduce those threats. The foreign policy of a country also depends on the national interests for its improvement (Venkat, 2007) Considering the Indias primary national interest as states survival, security and maintaining strong relationship with other countries, Indias national interests are Energy security, deals with the prolonged desire of nuclear fuel and nuclear technology. Securing unity and territorial integrity with China and Pakistan. During this process, India should maintain stability in government and peace for its fellow citizens. The conflict between India-Pakistan will be resolved only when the social-political changes occurs in Pakistan. Improving influence among the Asian countries by providing security and military intelligence to the smaller countries. Achieving greater freedom in the Indian subcontinent in trade and investment. These national interests are set to change from time-to-time according to its fulfilment. POST-INDEPENDENCE SECURITY: Territorial Integrity and Unity are considered as one of the important objectives to be fulfilled by India. The main aim in those perspectives is to settle the disputes of Indias long borders on LOC (Line of Control) of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir with Pakistan and LAC (Line of Actual Control) with China. These borders of LOC and LAC are controlled by Pakistan and China respectively. The providence of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir was invaded by Pakistan in 1947 and on the other hand, the China invaded the borders of Arunachal and Himachal Pradesh during 1956 and 1962. It is one of the important duties of a country to protect its current borders. So India should try for a best possible way to resolve the complex disputes with those two countries. India should consider implementing some strategies and tactics to overcome the problems in these regions because these are the primary concerns for India. Having fought many wars in LOC, Pakistans army and ISI have been aiding in removing the anti -social elements from the Pakistan-occupied Kashmir providence (Parisar, 2010). As India is considered as one of the fastest developing countries in the world, it should be well equipped in terms of defence and military operations. In order to keep up the momentum going, India should come up with some policies which are helpful in reducing the poverty. In order to achieve these goals, India should maintain a good relationship with its regional countries and also with other countries like the countries in Middle East, Central Asia, Indian Ocean regions and South East Asia. This makes meaning as to why Indias stance on Non-Alignment serves as the core National Interest of the country (Parisar, 2010). The importance of Indias relationship with USA is important and cannot be undermined. Even though, USA had been hit by the worst financial crisis ever in the recent decades, it is still the most dominant super power in the world. India has always maintained a good relationship with US in the fields of trade, science and technology, security issues, energy security including nuclear and non-conventional energy sources. Secretary Hillary Clinton has also emphasized that the democratic political system of both the countries also serve as a binding factor for the close relationship. Political systems, values and other beliefs are considered as the important factors to maintain a close relationship with USA (Dutt, 2007). SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROGRESS: The first priority was given to the advancement of the social and economic sector after the independence in 1947 but due to the shortages in defence sector, the progress in those fields were reduced. There has been a continuous increment of economic growth over the past three decades and reduction in people below the poverty line. This change was only possible just because of the closing the gap of inequality in India. Essentially the main aim of the Indian government is to satisfy the progress in defence and development of the state as whole. Owing to a bigger surface area, free India did have a complex security situation which it failed to address it at full concern and allocating only 1.5 to 2.8 per cent of the GDP. As India is considered as one of the fastest developing countries in the world, it should look in reducing the poverty stuck people by improving the socio-economic conditions and creating more jobs for the people in the country. India is posed with the biggest challeng es in the development of social and economic sectors because it should consider the development of the middle class by eliminating the regional inequalities and social imbalances and also have a close look at the overseas Indian population. As we step into the 21st century, there are some factors from the other countries which influence the political, military and economic behaviour of India. They are: United States is ranked as the super power in the world. Its policies of creating alliance in political, military and economic sectors with other major countries have increased their influence in the international arena. This has helped the power of many countries to be rising when compared to India; India has also been influenced by China as it is growing rapidly and it is represented as the second most powerful country in the world. China will continue to follow its current political policy and represent the most powerful authoritarian state in the world; Japan should also be consid ered in this context as it is a techno-economic super power. Its policy of undermining its military power should be taken into account; Another major power which should be considered is Russia. Even though, it has been struggling because of the political-social crisis and the collapse of the Soviet Union, it has advanced in the production of nuclear weapons and encouraged its military capabilities. These features make Russia to be addressed as an important country which can make changes to this modern world; European Union is emerging as a major power as it is coordinating its policies with the alliance countries. This process will turn out to be a successful venture for India in the coming years. As we can see from the above factors that the world is turning towards the Asian land mass for its development. India has also inked in a historic deal with United States for the exchange of nuclear fuel and nuclear technology for the period of 10years in 2005. This historic deal will help reduce and fuel the growth of the industrialised India by 2020. This proves that the development in the coming years will be Asia centric (Nitin, 2007). CHANGING SECURITY CONCERNS: With advancements in the information technology and science, the world is ready for another military revolution. This revolution in the coming years could entirely change the nature of war as we know it in the present. India can be an important country which could play a role in ensuring regional and global peace around the world. The results of the cold war have not helped in reducing the mass destructive weapons and did not promote peace in many countries. In turn it made exclusive laws to retain these weapons for the protection of the super power countries to remain dominant over others. This has made the penetration of these mass destructive weapons to the small countries legally and illegally. The security concerns at this instance are deteriorating all throughout the world. So India should be more focussed on monitoring and analysing the security measures that it has taken to ensure a secure environment. These steps are considered very important for India because terrorism has involved into a biggest problem these days and are penetrating in many parts of the world. India has also partnered many countries in fighting terrorism to ensure a secure India to all the people. They have been spending 2% of their GDP for their military operations and developments. All these factors are considered as important challenges that India need to take it into account when constructing its military operations in the future. India should work with the ASEAN countries to address the security measures which are useful for the Asian regions as whole. It should also work with Non Aligned Movement countries to defend and provide solution for the international community and also keep good relati on with the major powers and main partners. India should provide a secure transfer of equipment and material that are important for Indias defence program (Venkat, 2007). Another major concern for India is that of its geographic location. India is placed just in the middle of countries which are well known for its arms traffickings and narcotics. India is placed between North West Pakistan and Afghanistan and Myanmar on the other side. The military training camps which fight the holy war against the world in the regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan should also be considered as the major threat for the security of India (Raman, 2011). The national security of India just cannot be taken for granted as it involved during the cold wars stages. The main reason for this is that of the advancement and sophistication of the weapons developed by many countries and the ways in which the wars are fought nowadays. The security that prevailed during the cold war stages only focussed on nuclear weapons and missiles but today the problems have become more complex and intense. There are many countries which have also opted out of procuring these dangerous weapons. Today countries have to build security measures which combat to the needs of political, economic and military needs in common. DEMOCRATIC MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT: India is one of the biggest democratic countries in the world. Democracy proves to be an important tool to ensure that the benefits of the government are equally shared across the entire population without violence and exclusions. Democracy is also a process which guarantees rapid growth of power and wealth. In India, democracy has opened up to many peoples to stand for their rights. It is also stated that the other neighbouring countries after seeing the democratic model of India have ensured support and peace to all their citizens. For India, democracy should remain as a top priority in the future years to offer peaceful and proper guided country. Firstly, we need to recognise that the democratic model is never fast or easy as it is the complex combination of culture and policies. We also say that culture is not the destiny to get democracy. The countries with different culture, race, religion and different levels of development have promoted democracy and had been successful in it . In democracy, there is nothing which involves the cultural factors like Asian values, militarism or tribalism. India should promote and support democratisation by improving fair trade and investment from their citizens. The process of encouraging trade and bilateral investments also helps to improve democratic development. Political institutions should be given the power to enforce property rights to protect human rights and law. The main problem that comes into action is the corruption that takes place by the ruling party and others in power. These corruptions get unnoticed because of the fight in the corporate companies for corruption. The main strength of the present India is that of its well educated middle class population, it represents about 70 per cent of the total population. This advantage also creates new horizons for political movements and parties to establish a good government in the future. Trade also serves as one of the important issues for the development of the country, it not only helps us for the domestic economy but also for the foreign policy as a whole. Foreign cooperation with other countries, security developments and trade together helps India to be independent in the world. Promotion of democratic development is possible only when all of the above policies progress in the future (Bakshi, 2009). CONCLUSION: Even though India has been trying hard to maintain secure environment, it has failed to do so because of the threats from the anti-social elements. India has also increased their defence budget and has also acquired some war-heads and combat aircrafts from other countries. Indian government is also trying to make the better use of peoples money by updating their weapons and bringing confidence to the public as that of the Mumbai attacks. India as it goes by the roots, it takes democracy to attain peaceful and a secure country. As India is growing rapidly, it has to have a safe, secure and a stable neighbourhood. So India is ready to join and perform any security measures at the international level or regionally to bring stability and peace to the world. India should also provide security to citizens by reducing the riots in the country. It should also provide a secure environment and support for the people of India who live overseas. India owing to its multicultural society and a uni que democracy has ability to be considered as an example to many other countries to live peacefully. India in the recent years has opened its economy to foreign investors and is also providing rebates for their establishment. This has in-turn helped to boost the Indian economy from the FDIs and reaped good dividends from the markets. All these rapid developments and investments are only possible if India enhances its security and defence in the coming years.

Stability and bioavailability of different erythromycin derivatives :: essays research papers

1. Introduction Erythromycin is one of the most common used macrolide antibiotics. Over the years after Abbott introduced Erythrocin ® (erythromycin stearate) into the market, several generics and new brands have been introduced – generics in the form of different drug formulations and new brands in the form of different erythromycin salts. All these derivatives have the same pharmacodynamics and mechanism of action, but differ tremendously in their pharmacokinetics. This paper will give an introduction and a brief overview in the different stabilities and pharmacokinetics of the erythromycin salts and an introduction into new approaches in the field of macrolide antibiotics. Table of Contents 1. Introduction  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2 2. Erythromycin – a brief chemical description  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 2.1 Crystal structure and hygroscopicity  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  7 2.2 Mechanism of action  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  8 3. Derivatives of erythromycin base  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  9 3.1 Erythromycin stearate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  10 3.2 Erythromycin ethyl succinate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  10 3.3 Erythromycin estolate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  11 3.4 Comparison between erythromycin base and estolate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  13 4 Chemical derivatives of erythromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  13 4.1 Roxithromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  13 4.2 Clarithromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  14 4.3 Azithromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  14 4.4 Dirithromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  15 4.5 Flurithromycin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  16 4.6 Comparison of properties among the newer macrolides  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  17 5 Discussion and conclusions  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  19 References  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  21 2. Erythromycin – a brief chemical description Figure 2.1 Advertisement for eryped ® [3] Erythromycin belongs to the chemical group of macrolide antibiotics (macros [greek] = great, -olid as the suffix for lactones). It's microbiological activity mainly covers bacterial infections of the respiratory tract and other infections with gram positive bacteria. In the case of erythromycin base, the 14-linked lactone ring (Erythronolid) is conjugated with one basic amino sugar (Desopamine) and one neutral sugar (Cladinose). Figure 2.2 Erythromycin base showing the aglycon (red), the basic amino sugar (green), and the neutral sugar (blue) [2] Erythromycin was first discovered in 1952 in Streptomyces erythreus. The spectrum of activity is equal to penicillin. The antibiotic activity is linked to the presence of the desoxy sugars. There are three known forms of erythromycin. The structure of erythromycin-A is the most common used in formulations and differs from erythromycin-B in the hydroxyl-group in position 13 of the lactone ring. Erythromycin-C is missing the methoxy-group in the cladinose sugar. [8] Stability problems first were discovered when Erythrocin ® was found to contain not the declared amount of erythromycin stearate. The first stability problem with erythromycin is because of its deliquescence. This could be prevented if erythromycin is stored under accurate conditions. Erythromycin has a poor water solubility and solutions decompose quicker if temperature is increased. Figure 2.1 shows the chemical degradation of erythromycin. The formation of the hemiketal is a dehydration and leads to the inactivation and loss of antibiotic activity. This step is highly pH sensitive. Figure 2.3 Chemical degradation and inactivation of erythromycin [4]

Political parties and Voting Behavior Essay

Thesis: What are the predominant political factors that affect the voting behavior of a population ? Hypothesis : Pluralism, ideology, religion and social factors are the predominant political factors that affect the voting behavior of the population. Introduction : Pluralism in voting population is a natural phenomena in European and American cosmopolitan societies . Elsewhere, in Asia and far- East ethnic diversity too exists. A consequence of this pluralism is multi-party political system .Interests of different segregated sections of society based on issues, ethnicity, public policy, loyalties etc. are represented by different political parties. This should ideally and practically lead to a multi-party system . This system is obviously more democratic. The voters choice is increased . The political parties thus become more competitive against each other. This makes the political parties more accountable to the people in order to win their ‘trust and confidence’. This pluralism affects voting behavior and has serious impacts on national politics. Voters choices are often prejudiced and biased. This is quite reasonable as we are living in an imperfect society. The American Elections : Voting behavior in Democrat and Republican elections ‘A loss of American voter’s faith in Democracy.’ The American voters today don’t identify themselves with either Democrats or Republicans according to many surveys and statistical studies. The Presidential elections have seen a decline in the participation of eligible voters , as observed since the 1950s and 1960s. The eligible voting population has increased in America but the number of registered voters is decreasing. Dissatisfied by the Democrats and Republicans not bringing effective reforms the voters have lost interest in politics as a consequence of politicians. â€Å"Does this phenomena indicate the American citizens disillusionment with a predominantly much polarized American two-party democracy?† According to political scientists the political non-participation of Americans is a matter of concern for the health of American political system. The Americans are now cynical and distrustful of politics, politicians and the Government. Experts believe such a trend could lead to the breakdown of American political system. Contrary to the belief of these experts many Democrat and Republican partisan parties claim they have the ability to draw supporters for their parties. They argue that the American’s have thus not lost faith in Democracy. Viewpoints. Voting Behavior. Introduction. ‘The ‘God-gap’ difference between the Republicans and the democrats’ The Republicans are known for their conservative ideology and policies whereas the democrats are known for their liberal ones. It is a well established public opinion that the more religiously an American is inclined the more likely he is to vote for the Republicans and the other way round for the Democrats. Karlyn Bowman a public relations expert raised a question in this context at a conference for media men. This ‘God-gap’ had overshadowed many other issues and changed the voting patterns in the November, 2006 Presidential elections. Thus the ‘God-gap’ has begun to play an important role in the American public life. Since 1992, this gap , between the frequent and the not so frequent worshipers, regardless of their religious background has become prominent. Conservative leaders were the first to guess this voter behavior and to capitalize on it. The talk became all the more popular with the Pundits, intellectuals, liberal strategists and academics – the chattering class ! They added fuel to the fire.9/11 and it’s aftermath established the God- gap as a decisive public opinion maker. Thus, the public power of religion got firmly established in the American society. In the elections to come neither the Conservatives nor the Democrats can afford to underplay it. The November 2006 Presidential elections shall be followed with contests between the Republicans and Democrats to woo a sizeable vote-bank ; the one created by the ‘God-gap’. In Politics, the ‘God-gap’ Overshadows Other Differences New York Times. By Peter Steinfels. Published December 9, 2006. ‘The Religious vote base’ The Republicans have often used their religion conservative base to win votes. Consequently Mr. George Bush won his second term in the office. This has concerned the democrats and they have lately been working on the religious vote. White evangelical and the born-again Christians again voted for the Republican candidate in the last two elections. Nationwide exit polls show that nothing has changed in favor of the Democrats. Around 70-72 percent of the evangelical and the born again Christians voted for the Republican Presidential candidate in the last two elections. Deliberate call for a religious vote by some Democratic senate candidates did win them a significant proportion of Roman Catholics and white mainline Protestants votes in states like Ohio and Pennsylvania. However trends are changing, say, in many states like Colorado. Most American’s Bobby Clark, Deputy Director of a liberal group in Colorado says,† Most Americans are now a pretty moderate people.† The Rev. Troy Newman called the election day ‘a bloody Tuesday’. His anti-abortion Operation Rescue lost favor with American’s in South Dakota and California. The Democratic parties liberal anti-abortion policies were endorsed by the people. Religious Voting Data Show Some Shift, Observers Say. New York Times. By Laurie Goodstein. Published November 9, 2006. ‘Cashing on the African-American vote-bank’ African-American’s constitute nearly half the votes in South Carolina. A remarkable portion ! This phenomena of the African-American vote-bank is now well recognized both by the Republicans and the Democrats. The racial divide still exists and is well exploited. The candidates have no compunctions visiting black churches accepting their endorsements before the elections. They even don’t hesitate in identifying with king Martin Luther! Empirical data suggests that the African –American vote has been with the Democrats who have more actively fought for their cause. The Conservatives are taking no chances now . The situation in South Carolina mirrors the entire America. The African-American voters can no longer be taken for granted. They are now armed with education and leaders. They have made significant contributions to all spheres of American life- Arts, science, literature, Sports etc. In a nut-shell they are now enlightened about their rights and privileges. Black and Bruised. The New York Times, Monday, December, 24, 2007.by Joann Wypijewski. Published February 1, 2004. ‘The Feminist ideology ’ John Kerry actively involved himself in a campaign – the Women vote bank. He was establishing his credentials presiding over women audiences. His enthusiastic drive to win over the much contested vote-bank – Women. This bastion, the Democrats claimed rightly belonged to them Mr. Bush in his campaign had projected himself as the best candidate to protect the Americans against the terrorists. The 9/11 scare was worst to affect the women. Mr. Bush’s campaign as the best candidate to protect the American’s against the terrorists caught favor with women. According to New York Times/ CBS Polls Democrats polled less, loosing ground with Democratic parties most secure women-votes. Their has been a remarkable change in the trend. To quote statistics in 2000, 54 percent of women voted for Al Gore while only 43 percent voted for Mr. George Bush, the republican candidate. The news of the 9/11 terrorist attack and the unacceptable terrorist attack against children in Russia, used provocatively by the Republicans created a considerable challenge for Mr. John Kerry and the Democrats. Mr. Bush gave a fight to the Democrats on their own strong hold-the women-vote. Mr. Bush used his success in toppling the Afghan’s in yet another novel way. He projected the new found freedom of the Afghan women to woo feminist sentiments. Statistics show that the voter turnout of women has increased over the last Presidential elections. The two parties are working on the idea to polarize the feminist activism in their favor. On the other front they are drawing more and more women to the ballot box. More and more women candidates are being fielded in elections for public offices. Hillary Rodham Clinton , the wife of former President Mr. Bill Clinton is contesting in the next Presidential elections. She is being viewed as a strong contender for the position. This scenario echoes the general mood of the American people. Thus the feminist ideology holds ground affecting elections and political parties. The New York Times, Kerry in a Struggle for a Democratic Base: Women, by Katherine Q.Seelye. Published September 2, 2004. Conclusion : We can thus conclude that Pluralism, ideology, Religion and social factors are the predominant factors affecting voter behavior. Pluralism exists across European and American politics and even in Asia and the far- East. The concept of pluralism elucidates that a multi-party system has both positive and negative impacts on voters behavior. The voter has the right to choose the party he trusts. Although he might be biased and prejudiced in his attitudes. Neither the Democrats nor the Republicans are now able to associate themselves with the common American. The decline in participation of eligible voters population in America since the 1950s and 960s suggest that the American voter has lost faith in the political system- politics, politicians and the Government. Since 1992, the ‘God-gap’ factor has begun to play an important role in American elections. Both the Democrats and Republicans are creating and fuelling this gap to cash on votes. The Democrats and Republicans are playing their Religious cards. The electorate is swinging between the Democrats and Republicans. The last two Presidential elections saw 70-72 percent Christian hardliners voting for the conservative Republicans. The situation is changing in favor of the Democrats with the American people becoming more moderate in their values. The African-American voter is now valued due to his predominance in states like South Carolina. The women voters actively participated in the last few Presidential elections according to statistics. 9/11 and it’s aftermath left a deeper influence on women voters.

My Sisters Keeper Book Club Discussion Questions

My Sister's Keeper Book Club Discussion Questions My Sisters Keeper by Jodi Picoult presents a lot of questions for book clubs to discuss. These book club discussion questions on My Sisters Keeper will allow your book club to delve into the issues Picoult raises about family, science and doing the right thing in a hard situation. Book Club Discussion Questions  for My Sisters Keeper Spoiler warning: These book club discussion questions reveal important details about My Sisters Keeper by Jodi Picoult. (Finish the book before reading on!) Reread the prologue to My Sisters Keeper. Who is speaking? Is that who you thought was speaking the first time you read it?My Sisters Keeper is told from many different viewpoints. Why do you think Jodi Picoult wrote it this way? How did hearing from each character change your opinions of them and of the situation?Do you think Sara is a good mother? Do you sympathize with her? How does her martyrdom affect the rest of the family?Discuss the consequences of the trial other than the ruling. In what ways does it force people to deal with issues in their relationships? Sara and Brian? Anna and her parents? Julia and Campbell?Why does Jesse burn things? Is Jesse the opposite of his firefighter father or are they similar? In what ways?Discuss the ways each family member copes with their situation. How are each of their identities affected by Kate? How does this affect Kate?Why did Kate ask Anna to sue for medical emancipation? Was Anna right to listen to her wishes?Do you think it is ethic al to have a designer baby like Anna was? The epilogue talks about how the family moved on. How did they grieve? How did they survive? In what ways did Anna give life back to all of them, not just Kate?Rate My Sisters Keeper on a scale of 1 to 5.

dead stars essays

dead stars essays The story is focused in the life of Alfredo Salazar, who is the son of Don Julian and the brother of Carmen, who is a lawyer and engaged to Esparanza to whom he is deeply in love with until he met Julia Salas who made him confused about his love for his fianc. Alfredo met Julia in Judge Del Valles house, a friend of his father, who is his sister-in-law. He was puzzled with her smile every time he addresses her and he was charmed with her speaking voice. The daily routine of Alfredo and his father every Sunday morning after the mass is to go to the judges house that made Alfredo and Julia closer and know each better. He forgot that for several Sundays, he had not waited for Esperanza to come out of the church and he was already beginning to lie about his neighboring stuff. This is the beginning of his attraction to Julia. Esperanza did not enter in the picture because she was not prone to unprovoked jealousies that made Alfredo entertain the feeling towards Julia. When Don Julian invited the judge to Tanda, where he has a coconut plantation, a house, and a beach, they had this goodbye conversation because Julias parents want her to spend Holy week with them. The line The end of the impossible dream! meaning they have to be apart soon, pro ves that Alfredo is really in love with her. The time when Alfredo felt a violent commotion in his heart that he did not feel for Esperanza when he saw her is already a big problem because he will be soon married. He was already lying with his feelings but he still keeps his word to Esperanza. At the end of chapter two, the conversation is cut when Esperanza went out weeping with what his fianc had said. This situation made Alfredo think of what must be done. In chapter three, the paragraph started about Alfredo going to Santa Cruz, where he would defend a case and how it would disturb him because Julias lake town is ...

CHANGE MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

CHANGE MANAGEMENT - Essay Example The organisation is undergoing change in the management structure in order to acquire better efficiency. The organisation was unable to reach the target population and was also incapable of reaching the desired target. Thus, a change has been proposed which can help to make significant differences in operational system. The objective of the essay is to describe the change procedure of Children and Young People Service by using different change management models and theories. Description of Change Process The change process of Children and Young People Service has occurred through three phases. The first phase involves understanding the reasons for restructuring in the organisation. In this phase, a proposal has been made and justification for change has been developed. In the second phase, management team has been developed and change management models have been selected. The management team evaluated the present operational structure and established new operational structure on the basis of proposed objectives. ... While changes occur to individuals’ jobs, and at times they disagree with the change, alteration is internal in nature and it occurs in the mind of individuals during the change process. Thus, it helps to deal with the sentiments of individuals throughout the change process (Bridges & Mitchell, 2012). A weakness of the model is that it cannot be considered as a substitute for other approaches for change management. Moreover, the model cannot be regarded as an independent model for change management (Bridges & Mitchell, 2012). Strengths and Weakness of ADKAR Model The key strength of this model is that it delivers valuable management specifications which directly deal with people related aspects of change. Besides, this model permits for concentrating on those functions which are useful for accomplishing the desired outcome (Hiatt, 2006). However, one significant weakness of this model is that it fails to differentiate between the roles of leadership and management; it simply i gnores the requirement of leadership and concentrates on managing the change (Hiatt, 2006). Identification and Description of Models used in Change Management ADKAR Model of Change in Planning In the change management of Children and Young People Service, it can be recognised that ADKAR model of change has been followed within the planning process. ADKAR model states that in order to plan any kind of change, at first, there is a need for generating the desire for change among the members of organisation. Without proper desire the organisational members will be unable to participate in the change process and the change will become a failure. Awareness

Recording Analysing and using HR Information (CIPD CERTIFICATE) Essay

Recording Analysing and using HR Information (CIPD CERTIFICATE) - Essay Example legal requirements,  provide records in the event of an assertion against the organization, provide relevant information in decision making, record contractual arrangements, and keep contact details of employees (Kemsley, 2012). Within an organization, there are numerous types of data collected. These may include company data, employee records and statutory records.   Personal data such as employee name, telephone number, address, and next of keen, are collected and recorded to enable HR to contact employees (Obisi, 2011). Employee data help the organization to increase the efficiency of recruitment, promotion, development and training, monitoring equal opportunities issues. They can provide raw data to individual skills and competencies hence help the organization pinpoint precise opportunities to improve skills to match requirements (Cornell University, 2011). Payroll data allows HR to keep tabs on employee pay history as well as incorporate any changes. This consists of data pertaining basic salary and any additional benefits (Liverpool John Moores University, 2012). Accurate disciplinary action records enable HR to take an employee’s past record fully into account, especially when deciding what action to take when any breach of conduct has occurred. They also help management to apply the appropriate disciplinary rules according to the organization’s policy. There are many methods of recording and storing HR data. Records can be stored in filing cabinets, which make ease of access to data. It also helps to maintain a record of paper trail, which can be used for future reference or as evidence (Pope, 2012). Most organizations use the human resource information system (HRIS). This is an integrated system created to provide information used in HR decision-making (NMA Technologies, 2008). It merges human resource management with information technology. Here computer software, hardware, and databases simplify the task of analyzing data and help organizations

Wind Energy in Scotland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Wind Energy in Scotland - Essay Example Wilson further considers the site near Peebles in the Scottish Borders one of the most powerful in the country with 24 wind turbines, each standing 75 metres high. If all planned wind farms go ahead, Wilson notes, the Borders will be the renewable energy capital of Britain, with more jobs for more people and the ability to help the Government meet its own targets of 10% of electricity being produced from sustainable energy by 2010. The optimism expressed by the energy minister, however, is one-sided and does not take into consideration any of the controversy surrounding use of wind power. Nick Goodall (2002) of the British Wind Energy Association (BWEA) expresses his belief that the major issues involved in utilising wind resources are not technical but institutional. 'Planning' and 'Connection' are two areas of principal concern. One potential threat to further development of wind energy is the existence of small but vocal anti-wind farm activist groups. BWEA suggests that configuration of smaller-scale wind farms should be considered along with larger on- and offshore projects. Inclusive working groups should be established to consider the interests of all affected parties. Planning, connection and marketing issues require continued attention. Electricity generation accounts for only 20% of Scotland's energy needs according to the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) (Paterson, 2006), and the apparently simple resolution of using wind sources could take away from research into other renewable resources. However, if hydrogen technology increases sufficiently, IEE suggests that an increased electricity component might be necessary. Global considerations should be addressed when developing wind energy policies. Interactions between different policy instruments should be carefully assessed to avoid potential conflicts and inefficiencies. The decline of oil and gas fields of the UK continental shelf will increase Scotland's dependence on non-indigenous sources; in the longer term, global competition for primary energy will grow as global competitors increase along with gradual depletion of global resources. In use of wind, wave and tidal technologies, wind power represents the most feasible option; however the variability of wind power could create considerable technical challenges for the management of the grid and could necessitate substantial thermal back-up capacity (Paterson, Section 4, pp. 2-3). In Scotland, wind is taken for granted, but it definitely is not available at the same degree of power from day to day. A mix of generation technologies that can be connected at every level of the electricity supply chain needs to be developed. Some of the new technologies, particularly wind, introduce new challenges due to the inherent variability of power supply. In Scotland's government report on strategies for developing a renewable energy program (Choosing, 2005), rhetoric throughout the report overwhelms the

The Role of Early Relationships Essay Example for Free

The Role of Early Relationships Essay In this assignment I will discuss the role of early relationships in the development of child behaviour. This involves many factors such as the family, child rearing styles, theory and development of attachment. I will discuss and explain experiences which I have come across within the childrens sector and how these are influenced by the developmental theory. I will then discuss in depth how the main developmental perspectives play a part in early years. P3. The role of family when considering child rearing is vital as this is where the bonding process begins; as this bond is formed the child develops an attachment to the person therefore creating a relationship. This bond in the beginning is primarily developed with the babys main care provider, not necessarily the mother, as children are brought up in diverse family structures. Family structures such as: nuclear family which involves both parents being together to bring up the child not relying on others for support, lone parent families which is either the mother or father bringing the child up with out the support of a partner, reconstituted families where two adults become partners whilst parenting children from a previous relationship and finally extended families where there is a close knit support from other family members such as grandparents who live together with the parent(s) and child. Many families dont fit ideally into just one of these support units and may be a single parent family with the close support of other family members even though they do not live together as one family unit, this then affects the people which the child develops primary attachments with as the parent may work and the grandparents become the main childcare providers for the child therefore forming multiple attachments. P3. The ways in which child rearing has developed over time has changed dramatically not only due to the ways in which a family is structured but how the care is managed. The first theory of child rearing was developed by Truby King he suggested babies should be toilet trained as young as possible, have a feeding routine and spend lots of time outdoors in order to reduce the chances of infant mortality and disease therefore cutting down the adult to child contact. We now realise that this would affect the childs opportunities to bond, develop relationships and attachment with its carers. During the 1950s and 1960s Benjamin Spock, whos theory is more child-lead than the previous, emphasised the importance of building a strong relationship between the child and its carers by encouraging parents to be more flexible with the child illustrating more affection listening to the childs individual needs but still appreciated the need for a routine. His suggestions, which were published as a guide to parents, counteracted the strict advice of paediatricians and doctors at this time. Medical professionals insisted that unremitting feeding routines should be undertaken whilst they also disapproved of parents openly showing affection towards their child. What good mothers and fathers instinctively feel like doing for their babies is usually best after all (Spock B, Saidwhat.co.uk) His theory was focused on the physical aspect of relationship development believing that the child should be wrapped up to give them the feeling of security as they had in the womb of their mother, he believed that routine changes and feeds every four hours would suffice the child and leave them feeling happy, he also believed that a babys every cry should not be answered if the routine was in place as they didnt physically need anything more. P3. Penelope Leach developed further this approach suggesting that child rearing should be child-centred rather than child lead, meaning that responding to the childs social, emotional and cognitive needs not only reaffirmed the child but also the parents by allowing more bonding time. She helped parents understand their childs needs and cries, suggesting on-demand feeding is a better approach than feeding at set times as it better suits the childs individual needs. Leach therefore allowed parents to be carers of their child permitting them to spoil their child with love and affection rather than being there to enforce control and discipline. P3. Kitzinger looked into this further in the mid 1970s and believes that a child should be cared for in a way that is natural and instinctive for both the child and the mother. Sheila Kitzinger says that parents need to see their children as social beings that need human interaction and companionship not just servicing by being fed, bathed and changed.

PC Monitoring of Dynamometer

PC Monitoring of Dynamometer ABSTRACT The aim of the project PC MONITORING OF DYNAMOMETER is to measure and display the Speed Torque and Power of Motor. The behaviour of motor under load and no load characteristics have been studied with the help of virtual instrumentation. The variations in the motor Speed, Torque and Power at no load torque and full load torque have been analysed. Power determines the efficiency of the motor. Torque is varied by altering resistance in the dynamometer control circuit. The entire system will interface with a PC providing virtual instrumentation and data logging facilities. The graphical programming software has been used to study the characteristics of the motor by loading. Data logging and analysis is done by implementing the concept of LabVIEW. AIMS The aim of the project to build and develop the LabVIEW Program to acquire and analyse the data with the help of ADC card. Speed, Torque and Power of the shunt wound dc motor are acquired and analysed. OBJECTIVES Implement the concept of virtual instrumentation. Develop LabVIEW program to acquire Torque, Speed and Power. Analyse the motor characteristics under load and no load using the visual programming. To show the difference between acquiring the data manually and applying Virtual Instrumentation. Chapter 1 gives the introduction to the Motors, Labview and the literature review to realise the project. Chapter 2 is the study of Virtual Instrumentation and Labview programming. Chapter 3 explains the terms Torque, Speed Power asscociated with the shunt motor. Chapter 4 includes the experimental setup for the project with the specifications and the individual work of each and every component. Chapter 5 discussion part includes the introduction to LabVIEW tools used in the programming for the project. Chapter 6 contains the analysis for the manual operation of the motor when load is applied. Includes Torque, Speed, and Voltage characteristics. Chapter 7 includes the labview program for Speed, Torque and Power with the analysis for motor under loaded conditions. Chapter 8 includes the conclusions and the future scope of the project. CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION The extent to which electrical energy is used has influence on the development of industry and the economic prosperity of nation. Therefore rather than conserving the energy, methods need to be implemented to control the electrical energy and hence it can be possible only when the problems associated with the system are analysed and rectified with use of technology and time limitation. In industries the shunt wound motors are used where speed control is a critical aspect. The shunt wound motors are highly flexible, versatile and even the operation costs are minimum. The speed of rollers in large rolling mills is an very important aspect to be measured. In this type of application the rpm of each motor is measured and compared to setpoints. Under load motors draw more current which may damage the working capabilities of the motor thus causing damage. Hence there is a need for operating range for a motor to work even in extreme conditions. Characteristics such as Speed, Torque, Power, operating voltage and current are important for selection of motors. Power is the capability of the motor to do some work. The motor characteristics at high speed are highly different from that to low speeds. The power of motors is very low at high speeds consuming very less of electric distribution. The shunt wound type of motors run basically at a constant speed, regardless of load. In industries the shunt wound motors are used where speed control is a critical aspect. The shunt wound motors are highly flexible, versatile and even the operation costs are minimum. Motors runs at certain speed depending on the shunt field and armature. The armature produces the back EMF to maintain a certain speed as the shaft rotates. The back EMF is produced when the rotor rotates. As the load increases it causes the armature shaft to slow down and in this case the back EMF produced will be decreased. There are two methods for controlling the speed of a motor. The first one is by increasing or decreasing the voltage supply to the field. If less voltage is given the motor runs at low speed and as the voltage is increased the speed increases accordingly. The other method is by inserting resistance in the field circuit which makes the speed to vary upon changing the load. When load is increased apparently speed is decreased and vice versa. The change in load and speed torque and power can be acquired with the Software designed for acquisition and data analysis which is LabVIEW. LABVIEW Lab view in short is for Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench. Labview is a very powerful and flexible instrumentation and analysis software developed by National Instruments. Labview is a programme particularly developed for engineers and scientists working in automation industry and data analysis. The principle Labview works is the data flow. They are broken into wires and nodes. The inputs and outputs are considered a node. It has got the built in libraries for Data Acquisition, Instrument Control and data analysis. Data acquisition is to measure electrical or physical quantities such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure, or sound. PC-based data acquisition is a combination of hardware, application software, and pc for logging the data. Software is highly important to data acquisition systems. The reduction of hardware can be done if an effective software is designed. Data Acquisition software collects the data and displays the data. Ease in data analysis and presentation are the major reasons for using the computers in data acquisition . LabVIEW can acquire accurate and timely measurements for monitoring industrial and control system applications. LabVIEW quickly connects to number of industrial sensors which acquires data at very high speeds. The tools provided in the LabVIEW can perform advanced signal processing, frequency analysis, digital signal processing. LabVIEW can also be applied for machine vision, motion control, and machine condition monitoring In LabVIEW, the logic can be easily developed by using the drag drop graphical icons instead of writing lines of programs. Time taking programmes can be written in very short period using labview. This graphical language can be used in industrial applications to control instruments, build automated test systems, and acquire data virtually and many more. LITERATURE REVIEW The literature on fundamentals and applications of data acquisition, instrumentation, and control to engineering and technology is very extensive. Peter T lee conducted experiments based on the torque-speed characteristics of a motor with the help of mechanical design and 3-D using the computer. The computer simulation was drawn from a mechanical model. Upon implementing the above methods a conclusion has been made on the torque- speed characteristics of dc shunt motor. The maximum speed of the motor is at no load applying zero torque. The stall torque represents a point where the motor is at zero speed. Dynamic and steady state response mathematical models were designed. The torque meter is used to calculate the torque. The torque speed curve obtained is is bit nonlinear. The mechanical design produced had few constraints which led to the nonlinearity of the curves. As described by Comer in dc electric motor control systems series motors develop high torques at very low speeds when compared to shunt motors. For a given voltage the speed-torque characteristics show a linear decrease with the speed. Motor speed is controlled by controlling the voltage to the armature which involves construction of a circuit involving inverter amplifier, opamps, pulse width modulator which is confusing and rather time taking. Saffet Ayasun proposed Matlab and Simpower systems for studying the steady state and transient characteristics of electrical machines. Simulink models have been designed to control the speed in three ways. Simulink has been proposed for field resistance control, armature resistance control and armature voltage control. The conclusions drawn from the simulink modelling is that the electrical machines are perfectly integrated with the software. Pierre Guillemin proposed a technique based on fuzzy logic for controlling a dc motor. His work included on motors in food processing industries whose speed varies upon load. He worked on designing the fuzzy logic for the speed to be constant even though theres a much change in the load. The main methodlogy is top control the voltage involving the techniques of phase angle modulation and pulse width modulation. Use of fuzzy logic avoided the need for mathematical modelling. Real time test and acquisition has been done using the pc and eprom version of ST6 device has been used for controlling the fuzzy logic. So the main disadvantage of using ST6 is that it needs pages of text coding and has a instruction list of 40./p> From the above proposed techniques we can conclude that it not only makes the system complicated but also it takes lot of time to design a program and create a logic for it to run. Manual way of operating may result in human errors decreasing the quality of product. Hence the need for data acquisition at high speed without much implementation of hardware components can be possible with the help of virtual instrumentation. Virtual instrumentation is the combination of modular software and I/O with software as its main tool. Today in any type of computer aided manufacturing project work and laboratory tests, precision and reliability of instrumentation and data acquisition techniques may cause major impacts on results and outcomes. Therefore, there is a need to gain knowledge and skills to obtain any type of physical or virtual data on manufacturing, testing, measurement, and protection areas. METHODOLOGY The data has been acquired from a dynamometer motor system and is displayed on the pc for analysis involving a communication between hardware and software. The ADC card communicates between the systems with the help of a data cable. The conditioned signals are connected to the channels of the DAQ board. The hardware system is in conjunction with the PC running LabVIEW. LabVIEW contains front panel and the block diagram which displays the data acquired and further analysis can be done. The front panel and block diagram are responsible for the understanding of programming involved. CHAPTER-2 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION Virtual Instrumentation is the combination of software, Input/Output hardware for the user desired applications. Sofware is the heart of Virtual Instrumentation. Instrumentation is basically divided into two types one is natural instrumentation and the other is Virtual Instrumentation. Natural instrumentation consists of hardware components and Virtual instrumentation is of Software with limited hardware components. The main difference between natural instrumentation and virtual instrumentation is that the software component of virtual instruments is more reliable and versatile when compared to the hardware components. TRADITIONAL INSTRUMENT VS VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT The above Fig shows the difference between natural Instrument and a Virtual Instruments. In natural instrument a embedded chip is fixed to do a particular job which is not flexible whereas in a virtual instrument software can be modified and used for different applications as per the requirement. LabVIEW Labview stands for Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench. LabView is a visual programming language from National Instruments. The graphical language is originally named G. LabVIEW is used for data acquisition, industrial automation and instrument control. The programs in labview are called as virtual instruments .The graphical language can be easily identified by visual identification which makes it very easier to understand. Labview programs are termed as virtual instruments as they generally look and work as the instruments. Labview comes with a mechanism which allows data to pass between front panel and the block diagram. Labview is used by engineers and scientists to develop the sophisticated measurement, test, analyse control systems using graphical icons and wires. Labview can integrate with thousands of hardware devices and numerous built libraries are provided for analysis and data visualisation DATAFLOW PROGRAMMING The programming language used in LabVIEW is called G which is termed as a dataflow language. Labview Programme execution is determined by the way the block diagram is structured. Drawing wires are used to connect different function nodes. The information is transferred through the wires. The program is executed as soon as the input is available. G program is capable of parallel execution. The dataflow completely defines the execution sequence, and can be fully controlled by the programmer. The execution sequence is perfectly defined in Labview as defined in some software languages. GRAPHICAL PROGRAMMING LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments. Each VI has three components: Block diagram Front panel Connector pane. Data Flow is the principle for the VI execution. The VI are data driven whereas the normal text coding are instruction driven as specified by the programmer. When all the input data is available then the node starts executing and the processed data is supplied to the output terminals. The graphical language makes it very easier for the programmers in which virtual instruments can be dragged and dropped as per requirement. Stand alone applications can be built with the help of advanced labview development systems. The front panel serves as a user interface between the user and the pc. When front panel is dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the node inputs and outputs can be defined in with the help of connector pane. CHAPTER -3 DC SHUNT MOTOR A motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical or rotating energy. DC motors are basically divided into two types. Series motors and Shunt motor. Shunt Motor are the one in which the field is parallel to the load. In shunt motors the armature is mounted on the motor shaft. The rotating part in the dc motor is termed as the armature. The windings are located in the slots on the surface of the armature. When the current is supplied to the armature windings it creates a magnetic field that reacts with the field poles. Hence this magnetic field develops a torque which turn the rotor that is the armature. While the rotor rotates it induces a voltage which is opposite to the supplied voltage and hence emf is generated. At start the resistance is high and as the motor picks up the speed the resistance is reduced gradually. In manual start the resistance is controlled by the man at work whereas in automatic start of motor the armature voltage or current is taken into consideration and the resistance is corrected in the begging of start . The increase in armature voltage results in increase in speed and as the armature voltage is decreased the speed decreases. Torque is directly proportional to armature current. Increases in armature current causes the increase in torque.The rotation of the armature can be reversed by reversing the current direction. At start of the motor the current is high. As armature starts rotating the back emf increases gradually with the speed and the current decreases. When the speed of the armature comes to constant the back emf is stable approaching the induced voltage. If a mechanical load is applied the speed decreases and hence the counter emf decreases. This decreases in counter emf increases the differential voltage and thus increases the input current supply to motor. Torque is directly proportional to armature magnetic field strength. Armature magnetic field is directly proportional to armature current which in turn depends on mechanical load applied. Hence any increase in mechanical load increases the armature current and armature magnetic field strength and thus the Torque increases. Thus the speed of the motor decreases. DC motors are differentiated based on their voltage, torque, speed and power. TORQUE Torque is the rotating force of the shaft of a motor. This rotating force is developed due to the interaction of magnetic field between field windings and the field poles. The torque of a motor can be determined by connecting it to prony brake The torque in general terms is the force exerted by the shaft of a motor. i.e if force is applies to a lever which is free to rotate about one fixed point the lever will rotate unless restrained. The torque is defined as t=Fr or Frsin?. The torque which is produced in clockwise is called a clockwise torque and the torque which is obtained in anticlockwise is called anticlockwise torque. FULL LOAD TORQUE The continous torque motor can support without overheating under the specified time rating is full load torque. PEAK TORQUE Peak torque is the maximum torque required at any point. Peak torque is delivered to motor without much overheating the motor. Peak torque is normally less than the stall torque. PULL OUT TORQUE This is maximum torque of the rotating shaft when operated at high speed and full voltage. Pull out torque is also considered as the breakdown torque. STARTING TORQUE Torque exerted by the motor when energized at full voltage with its shaft locked is starting torque. It is also termed as locked rotor torque. SPEED The motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The rotational energy is used to lift things, propel things, turn things, etc. When a specific voltage is supplied to a motor, it rotates the output shaft at a particular speed. The angular velocity, is measured in rad/s, rps, rpm. Speed of a shunt motor can be controlled in three ways. Field Control Method Armature Control Method Armature Voltage Control method FIELD CONTROL METHOD In field control method the speed of the armature is controlled by adjusting the field current. upto certain speed the counter emf and the speed remains constant. Field Control method is also termed as constant speed drive. ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL In Armature resistance control external resistance is inserted in the armature circuit for controlling the speed of motor. The insertion of resistance keeps the armature current constant in certain speed range. The main disadvantages using this techniques include powerloss in external resistance and overall low efficiency when speed is reduced to great extent. ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL Armature voltage control is preferred over the other methods as powerloss and low efficiency is avoided. In this method the shunt field current is kept constant while varying the armature voltage. Hence the armature current and the flux generated remains constant. At certain current the torque remains constant since armature current is directly proportional to torque. Thus the speed of the motor can be controlled to certain range. SPEED REGULATION The speed regulation for a dc motor is the ratio of change in speed from no load to full loadf load speed. POWER The power of a motor is defined as the capability of motor to do given amount of work.Power of a motor depends on torque, speed of the shaft and the amount of time the time operates. Electric motors are rated generally on their maximum efficiency. Thus Greater the horse power of a motor greater is the working range. Operation of a motor more than rated horse power leads to overheating of the motor thus causing a stall. This may even damage the motor in the long run. The power of motor can be determined by connecting it to a dynamometer. DYNAMOMETER Dynamometer is a device which measures force and power. Eddy current Dynamometer consists of a stator in which electromagnets and rotor disc are coupled to shaft of the engine .When a rotor is made to rotate the eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux which is created by the filed current in electromagnets. This type of dynamometers requires some cooling arrangement as the eddy currents produced dissipates heat energy. The moment arm is used to measure the torque. In this kind of dynamometers the load is controlled by the regulation of currents in electromagnetic fields. Design Cycle The selection of appropriate hardware and software was an essential part of this project. The first section of this chapter 4 gives the information of hardware components of a system, the diagrams and specifications are discussed .The second part of this chapter describes the hardware design process and software is described in the third section ,code used for the system are going to be presented. CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP DC SHUNT MOTOR-WORKING The DC motor has two basic parts: The choosen shunt Dc motor is the motor which converts electrical power to mechanical power. The shunt motor is different from that of series motor. In the shunt type dc motor field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. The field winding is parallel to armature and this is referred as shunt winding and the motor is called a shunt motor. The rated rpm of the motor is 1500. The speed of the motor can be increased or decreased with the help of a drive. The current can be increased or decreased to set the speed. To reduce the speed of the motor mechanical load can be applied. Torque can be applied to reduce the speed of the motor. Under loaded conditions the speed of the motor reduces. Motor can be applied until it reaches the rated torque of the motor. If the load goes beyond the rated torque it starts drawing high curent and after some time it comes to stall. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTOR Shunt motors run at constant speed even when there is huge variation in the load. The Speed of the shunt-wound motors may be regulated in two ways. The first way is by putting resistance in series with the armature, through which the speed is decreased and the second method is by inserting resistance in the field by which the speed will vary as the motor is loaded. The characteristics of a shunt-wound motor is that it has a very good speed regulation, and is aconstant speed motor, though the speed slightly decreases as load is increased. Shunt-wound motors are used mostly in industrial and automotive applications where accurate measurement of Torque, Speed are highly necessary. EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER A dynamometer is a device used to load the motor which also indicates the torque. The dynamometer used in this project works on hysteresis brake principle. The dynamometer system mainly consists of three parts: Dynamometer Torque indicator Power Supply Eddy current dynamometers are the actuated braking systems. This braking system develops load torque with the interaction from the dc magnetic field produced by the windings on the stator and induced eddy currents in the rotor. When the magnetic field is added around the rotor it causes eddy currents. These eddy currents help in slowing down the speed. Dynamometer01CJC.svg The torque developed in the dynamometer is transmitted to the stator which is free to rotate over an arc and this is used to deflect a spring balance and so the torque can be directly measured on a scale. Eddy current dynamometer comes with a rotary potentiometer which works on the principle ROTARY POTENTIOMETER Rotary potentiometers come with a spiral resistive strip, and a wiper which moves axially as it rotates. As the wiper moves across the resistive strip resistance changes. VOLTAGE DIVIDER The voltage divider is used to know the output voltage when input voltage is given across the resistance. The ouput voltage depends upon the input voltage given and the resistor chosen. The resistor choosen is 10k? and an input voltage of 5v is given to the voltage divider. VOLTAGE DIVIDER The input voltage is given across the termicals 1 and 2 and the output voltage is taken across the terminals 2 and 3. Connect the voltmeter across the resistance . Now switch the output voltage off and manipulate the input voltage to 5v. Now switch on the output toggle button on . The input voltage is set to 5v. AC TACHOMETER: Tachometers are used to measure the angular speed of a rotating shaft. The speed is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). A tachometer works on the principle that it the speed of rotating shaft is determined by the variation in output frequency signal or voltage. As the speed increases the voltage level and the frequency increases. CONTACT TYPE AC TACHOMETER The above fig shows the tachometer coupled to the motor. Ac tachometer used in the design is rated at 0.5v/100rpm. It shows that increase in speed increases. For every 100rpm variation the voltage increases by 0.5 rpm. The voltage signal from the ac tachometer is given to the simple presicion rectifier which further converts the signal to dc voltage. SIMPLE PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER A simple precision full wave rectifier converts the ac voltage to dc voltage. The simple precision full wave rectifier is built with operation amplifier which works on the principle of differential voltage. An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier which has differential inputs and a single output. Negative feed back controls the gain in the opamps. The output goes positive when the non inverting input(+) goes more positive than the inverting input (-) and vice versa When the input signal goes positive again, the op amps output voltage will take time to go back to zero, then to forward bias the diode and produce an output. The time taken is determined by the opamps slew rate. Slew rate is the maximum attainable range of the output voltage. Slew rate limits the highest frequency of the sin wave. The opamp 741 choosen in the project has a slew rate of 0.5v per micro seconds SIMPLE PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER The negative voltage at the input through the diode and resistor. The positive half cycles appear at the output of the second diode. When positive voltage is given the feed back is given by the diodes and hence negative cycles . The positive cycles and negative cycles are summed differentially to get the output voltage. The opamp 741 choosen in the project has a slew rate of 0.5v per micro seconds For measurement applications the signal has to be ripple free. Hence low pass filter can be used to achieve the signal free from ripples. RC LOW PASS FILTER Resistor Capacitance generally termed as RC circuits are used in filtering a signal waveform, thus changing the relative amounts of high frequency and low information in their output signals compared to their input signals. RC filter is a common application for smoothing a signal. The RC circuit has a capacitor and a resistor in which are connected in series. The charged capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor placed in series with it. This voltage across the capacitor is found through Kirchhoffs current law which says that the current coming from capacitor is equal the current flowing out through the resistor. The linear differential eqn. can be given by ANALOG TO DIGITAL CARD Analog to Digital conversion is interfacinf the analog I/O with the Digital I/O. ADC cnversion takes place in three stages. They are Sampling, Quantisation and encoding. The ADC card which is used in the Project is CIO-DASO8/JR-A0. SAMPLING The analog input cannot be directly sent to the pc. The ADC digitises the analog input signal continusly. The proper reconstruction of signal is possible only when the sampling rate is twice the highest frequency component. If the sampling rate is under that the problem of Alaising occurs. To eleminate the problems of aliasing the signal must be sampled at a rate higher than Nyquist frequency rate. The fig shows the sampling rates and the construction of the signal. If a signal is sampled at too low rate perfect reconstruction of signal is nt possible which results in the loss of data. QUANTISATION Quantisation represents the signal in discrete and certainj voltage levels. Quantisation actually is approximating the signals to the lowest possible range. The fig below shows the sampling of a singal which is then quatises indicated by a red line. The quantization is necessary as during the sampling the small range of signals may not be digitised. This results in loss of information. By approximating the values the reconstruction of signal is perfect. CODING Coding is the process of converting the sampled signals to n bits which are represented by 0 and 1s. These bits represent certain voltage levels which is given by the resolution. SPECIFICATIONS When acquiring data to a computer, an analog to digital Conveter takes an analog signal and digitises the signal. The sigal is digitised to sertain binary numbers. These binary numbers represents respective voltage levels. Resolution refers to the number of binary levels ADC can represent a signal. The resolution of a n bit ADC can be by taking the value . The ADC card which is used in the Project is CIO-DASO8/JR-A0. DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL ARCHITECTURE Data acquisition and cntrol architectlog input is given to the pc via ADC which converts the analog input to digital input. The data can be transmitted bidirectionally with the help of data acquisition device. Labview Software is loaded in the pc which acquires the data with the help of built in libraraies. INSTACAL Instacal is software which manages the data acquisition hardware. It is used in calibration of the boards attached. It scans all the internal registers and the electronic equipment and if any fault found error messages are shown. The ADC is calibrated with the help of instacal to check whether the data logger is accurate or not. CHAPTER 5 LABVIEW Labview environment is opened by when new VI is selected from the start up screen. The file menu contains commands for file manipulations. Edit menu is used to modify the block diagram and front panel objects. By default the undo or redo settings for a VI are 8. It can be manipulated as per the requirement. Operate menu acts in running or stopping a VI or to change the settings of VI. The tools menu acts as interface in communicating with the data acquisition boards to build the applications and in enabling the web server. WINDOW INTRODUCTION Labview programming is mainly divided into two panels. The first one is the Front Panel and all the controls and indicators are in l PC Monitoring of Dynamometer PC Monitoring of Dynamometer ABSTRACT The aim of the project PC MONITORING OF DYNAMOMETER is to measure and display the Speed Torque and Power of Motor. The behaviour of motor under load and no load characteristics have been studied with the help of virtual instrumentation. The variations in the motor Speed, Torque and Power at no load torque and full load torque have been analysed. Power determines the efficiency of the motor. Torque is varied by altering resistance in the dynamometer control circuit. The entire system will interface with a PC providing virtual instrumentation and data logging facilities. The graphical programming software has been used to study the characteristics of the motor by loading. Data logging and analysis is done by implementing the concept of LabVIEW. AIMS The aim of the project to build and develop the LabVIEW Program to acquire and analyse the data with the help of ADC card. Speed, Torque and Power of the shunt wound dc motor are acquired and analysed. OBJECTIVES Implement the concept of virtual instrumentation. Develop LabVIEW program to acquire Torque, Speed and Power. Analyse the motor characteristics under load and no load using the visual programming. To show the difference between acquiring the data manually and applying Virtual Instrumentation. Chapter 1 gives the introduction to the Motors, Labview and the literature review to realise the project. Chapter 2 is the study of Virtual Instrumentation and Labview programming. Chapter 3 explains the terms Torque, Speed Power asscociated with the shunt motor. Chapter 4 includes the experimental setup for the project with the specifications and the individual work of each and every component. Chapter 5 discussion part includes the introduction to LabVIEW tools used in the programming for the project. Chapter 6 contains the analysis for the manual operation of the motor when load is applied. Includes Torque, Speed, and Voltage characteristics. Chapter 7 includes the labview program for Speed, Torque and Power with the analysis for motor under loaded conditions. Chapter 8 includes the conclusions and the future scope of the project. CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION The extent to which electrical energy is used has influence on the development of industry and the economic prosperity of nation. Therefore rather than conserving the energy, methods need to be implemented to control the electrical energy and hence it can be possible only when the problems associated with the system are analysed and rectified with use of technology and time limitation. In industries the shunt wound motors are used where speed control is a critical aspect. The shunt wound motors are highly flexible, versatile and even the operation costs are minimum. The speed of rollers in large rolling mills is an very important aspect to be measured. In this type of application the rpm of each motor is measured and compared to setpoints. Under load motors draw more current which may damage the working capabilities of the motor thus causing damage. Hence there is a need for operating range for a motor to work even in extreme conditions. Characteristics such as Speed, Torque, Power, operating voltage and current are important for selection of motors. Power is the capability of the motor to do some work. The motor characteristics at high speed are highly different from that to low speeds. The power of motors is very low at high speeds consuming very less of electric distribution. The shunt wound type of motors run basically at a constant speed, regardless of load. In industries the shunt wound motors are used where speed control is a critical aspect. The shunt wound motors are highly flexible, versatile and even the operation costs are minimum. Motors runs at certain speed depending on the shunt field and armature. The armature produces the back EMF to maintain a certain speed as the shaft rotates. The back EMF is produced when the rotor rotates. As the load increases it causes the armature shaft to slow down and in this case the back EMF produced will be decreased. There are two methods for controlling the speed of a motor. The first one is by increasing or decreasing the voltage supply to the field. If less voltage is given the motor runs at low speed and as the voltage is increased the speed increases accordingly. The other method is by inserting resistance in the field circuit which makes the speed to vary upon changing the load. When load is increased apparently speed is decreased and vice versa. The change in load and speed torque and power can be acquired with the Software designed for acquisition and data analysis which is LabVIEW. LABVIEW Lab view in short is for Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench. Labview is a very powerful and flexible instrumentation and analysis software developed by National Instruments. Labview is a programme particularly developed for engineers and scientists working in automation industry and data analysis. The principle Labview works is the data flow. They are broken into wires and nodes. The inputs and outputs are considered a node. It has got the built in libraries for Data Acquisition, Instrument Control and data analysis. Data acquisition is to measure electrical or physical quantities such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure, or sound. PC-based data acquisition is a combination of hardware, application software, and pc for logging the data. Software is highly important to data acquisition systems. The reduction of hardware can be done if an effective software is designed. Data Acquisition software collects the data and displays the data. Ease in data analysis and presentation are the major reasons for using the computers in data acquisition . LabVIEW can acquire accurate and timely measurements for monitoring industrial and control system applications. LabVIEW quickly connects to number of industrial sensors which acquires data at very high speeds. The tools provided in the LabVIEW can perform advanced signal processing, frequency analysis, digital signal processing. LabVIEW can also be applied for machine vision, motion control, and machine condition monitoring In LabVIEW, the logic can be easily developed by using the drag drop graphical icons instead of writing lines of programs. Time taking programmes can be written in very short period using labview. This graphical language can be used in industrial applications to control instruments, build automated test systems, and acquire data virtually and many more. LITERATURE REVIEW The literature on fundamentals and applications of data acquisition, instrumentation, and control to engineering and technology is very extensive. Peter T lee conducted experiments based on the torque-speed characteristics of a motor with the help of mechanical design and 3-D using the computer. The computer simulation was drawn from a mechanical model. Upon implementing the above methods a conclusion has been made on the torque- speed characteristics of dc shunt motor. The maximum speed of the motor is at no load applying zero torque. The stall torque represents a point where the motor is at zero speed. Dynamic and steady state response mathematical models were designed. The torque meter is used to calculate the torque. The torque speed curve obtained is is bit nonlinear. The mechanical design produced had few constraints which led to the nonlinearity of the curves. As described by Comer in dc electric motor control systems series motors develop high torques at very low speeds when compared to shunt motors. For a given voltage the speed-torque characteristics show a linear decrease with the speed. Motor speed is controlled by controlling the voltage to the armature which involves construction of a circuit involving inverter amplifier, opamps, pulse width modulator which is confusing and rather time taking. Saffet Ayasun proposed Matlab and Simpower systems for studying the steady state and transient characteristics of electrical machines. Simulink models have been designed to control the speed in three ways. Simulink has been proposed for field resistance control, armature resistance control and armature voltage control. The conclusions drawn from the simulink modelling is that the electrical machines are perfectly integrated with the software. Pierre Guillemin proposed a technique based on fuzzy logic for controlling a dc motor. His work included on motors in food processing industries whose speed varies upon load. He worked on designing the fuzzy logic for the speed to be constant even though theres a much change in the load. The main methodlogy is top control the voltage involving the techniques of phase angle modulation and pulse width modulation. Use of fuzzy logic avoided the need for mathematical modelling. Real time test and acquisition has been done using the pc and eprom version of ST6 device has been used for controlling the fuzzy logic. So the main disadvantage of using ST6 is that it needs pages of text coding and has a instruction list of 40./p> From the above proposed techniques we can conclude that it not only makes the system complicated but also it takes lot of time to design a program and create a logic for it to run. Manual way of operating may result in human errors decreasing the quality of product. Hence the need for data acquisition at high speed without much implementation of hardware components can be possible with the help of virtual instrumentation. Virtual instrumentation is the combination of modular software and I/O with software as its main tool. Today in any type of computer aided manufacturing project work and laboratory tests, precision and reliability of instrumentation and data acquisition techniques may cause major impacts on results and outcomes. Therefore, there is a need to gain knowledge and skills to obtain any type of physical or virtual data on manufacturing, testing, measurement, and protection areas. METHODOLOGY The data has been acquired from a dynamometer motor system and is displayed on the pc for analysis involving a communication between hardware and software. The ADC card communicates between the systems with the help of a data cable. The conditioned signals are connected to the channels of the DAQ board. The hardware system is in conjunction with the PC running LabVIEW. LabVIEW contains front panel and the block diagram which displays the data acquired and further analysis can be done. The front panel and block diagram are responsible for the understanding of programming involved. CHAPTER-2 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION Virtual Instrumentation is the combination of software, Input/Output hardware for the user desired applications. Sofware is the heart of Virtual Instrumentation. Instrumentation is basically divided into two types one is natural instrumentation and the other is Virtual Instrumentation. Natural instrumentation consists of hardware components and Virtual instrumentation is of Software with limited hardware components. The main difference between natural instrumentation and virtual instrumentation is that the software component of virtual instruments is more reliable and versatile when compared to the hardware components. TRADITIONAL INSTRUMENT VS VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT The above Fig shows the difference between natural Instrument and a Virtual Instruments. In natural instrument a embedded chip is fixed to do a particular job which is not flexible whereas in a virtual instrument software can be modified and used for different applications as per the requirement. LabVIEW Labview stands for Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench. LabView is a visual programming language from National Instruments. The graphical language is originally named G. LabVIEW is used for data acquisition, industrial automation and instrument control. The programs in labview are called as virtual instruments .The graphical language can be easily identified by visual identification which makes it very easier to understand. Labview programs are termed as virtual instruments as they generally look and work as the instruments. Labview comes with a mechanism which allows data to pass between front panel and the block diagram. Labview is used by engineers and scientists to develop the sophisticated measurement, test, analyse control systems using graphical icons and wires. Labview can integrate with thousands of hardware devices and numerous built libraries are provided for analysis and data visualisation DATAFLOW PROGRAMMING The programming language used in LabVIEW is called G which is termed as a dataflow language. Labview Programme execution is determined by the way the block diagram is structured. Drawing wires are used to connect different function nodes. The information is transferred through the wires. The program is executed as soon as the input is available. G program is capable of parallel execution. The dataflow completely defines the execution sequence, and can be fully controlled by the programmer. The execution sequence is perfectly defined in Labview as defined in some software languages. GRAPHICAL PROGRAMMING LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments. Each VI has three components: Block diagram Front panel Connector pane. Data Flow is the principle for the VI execution. The VI are data driven whereas the normal text coding are instruction driven as specified by the programmer. When all the input data is available then the node starts executing and the processed data is supplied to the output terminals. The graphical language makes it very easier for the programmers in which virtual instruments can be dragged and dropped as per requirement. Stand alone applications can be built with the help of advanced labview development systems. The front panel serves as a user interface between the user and the pc. When front panel is dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the node inputs and outputs can be defined in with the help of connector pane. CHAPTER -3 DC SHUNT MOTOR A motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical or rotating energy. DC motors are basically divided into two types. Series motors and Shunt motor. Shunt Motor are the one in which the field is parallel to the load. In shunt motors the armature is mounted on the motor shaft. The rotating part in the dc motor is termed as the armature. The windings are located in the slots on the surface of the armature. When the current is supplied to the armature windings it creates a magnetic field that reacts with the field poles. Hence this magnetic field develops a torque which turn the rotor that is the armature. While the rotor rotates it induces a voltage which is opposite to the supplied voltage and hence emf is generated. At start the resistance is high and as the motor picks up the speed the resistance is reduced gradually. In manual start the resistance is controlled by the man at work whereas in automatic start of motor the armature voltage or current is taken into consideration and the resistance is corrected in the begging of start . The increase in armature voltage results in increase in speed and as the armature voltage is decreased the speed decreases. Torque is directly proportional to armature current. Increases in armature current causes the increase in torque.The rotation of the armature can be reversed by reversing the current direction. At start of the motor the current is high. As armature starts rotating the back emf increases gradually with the speed and the current decreases. When the speed of the armature comes to constant the back emf is stable approaching the induced voltage. If a mechanical load is applied the speed decreases and hence the counter emf decreases. This decreases in counter emf increases the differential voltage and thus increases the input current supply to motor. Torque is directly proportional to armature magnetic field strength. Armature magnetic field is directly proportional to armature current which in turn depends on mechanical load applied. Hence any increase in mechanical load increases the armature current and armature magnetic field strength and thus the Torque increases. Thus the speed of the motor decreases. DC motors are differentiated based on their voltage, torque, speed and power. TORQUE Torque is the rotating force of the shaft of a motor. This rotating force is developed due to the interaction of magnetic field between field windings and the field poles. The torque of a motor can be determined by connecting it to prony brake The torque in general terms is the force exerted by the shaft of a motor. i.e if force is applies to a lever which is free to rotate about one fixed point the lever will rotate unless restrained. The torque is defined as t=Fr or Frsin?. The torque which is produced in clockwise is called a clockwise torque and the torque which is obtained in anticlockwise is called anticlockwise torque. FULL LOAD TORQUE The continous torque motor can support without overheating under the specified time rating is full load torque. PEAK TORQUE Peak torque is the maximum torque required at any point. Peak torque is delivered to motor without much overheating the motor. Peak torque is normally less than the stall torque. PULL OUT TORQUE This is maximum torque of the rotating shaft when operated at high speed and full voltage. Pull out torque is also considered as the breakdown torque. STARTING TORQUE Torque exerted by the motor when energized at full voltage with its shaft locked is starting torque. It is also termed as locked rotor torque. SPEED The motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The rotational energy is used to lift things, propel things, turn things, etc. When a specific voltage is supplied to a motor, it rotates the output shaft at a particular speed. The angular velocity, is measured in rad/s, rps, rpm. Speed of a shunt motor can be controlled in three ways. Field Control Method Armature Control Method Armature Voltage Control method FIELD CONTROL METHOD In field control method the speed of the armature is controlled by adjusting the field current. upto certain speed the counter emf and the speed remains constant. Field Control method is also termed as constant speed drive. ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL In Armature resistance control external resistance is inserted in the armature circuit for controlling the speed of motor. The insertion of resistance keeps the armature current constant in certain speed range. The main disadvantages using this techniques include powerloss in external resistance and overall low efficiency when speed is reduced to great extent. ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL Armature voltage control is preferred over the other methods as powerloss and low efficiency is avoided. In this method the shunt field current is kept constant while varying the armature voltage. Hence the armature current and the flux generated remains constant. At certain current the torque remains constant since armature current is directly proportional to torque. Thus the speed of the motor can be controlled to certain range. SPEED REGULATION The speed regulation for a dc motor is the ratio of change in speed from no load to full loadf load speed. POWER The power of a motor is defined as the capability of motor to do given amount of work.Power of a motor depends on torque, speed of the shaft and the amount of time the time operates. Electric motors are rated generally on their maximum efficiency. Thus Greater the horse power of a motor greater is the working range. Operation of a motor more than rated horse power leads to overheating of the motor thus causing a stall. This may even damage the motor in the long run. The power of motor can be determined by connecting it to a dynamometer. DYNAMOMETER Dynamometer is a device which measures force and power. Eddy current Dynamometer consists of a stator in which electromagnets and rotor disc are coupled to shaft of the engine .When a rotor is made to rotate the eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux which is created by the filed current in electromagnets. This type of dynamometers requires some cooling arrangement as the eddy currents produced dissipates heat energy. The moment arm is used to measure the torque. In this kind of dynamometers the load is controlled by the regulation of currents in electromagnetic fields. Design Cycle The selection of appropriate hardware and software was an essential part of this project. The first section of this chapter 4 gives the information of hardware components of a system, the diagrams and specifications are discussed .The second part of this chapter describes the hardware design process and software is described in the third section ,code used for the system are going to be presented. CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP DC SHUNT MOTOR-WORKING The DC motor has two basic parts: The choosen shunt Dc motor is the motor which converts electrical power to mechanical power. The shunt motor is different from that of series motor. In the shunt type dc motor field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. The field winding is parallel to armature and this is referred as shunt winding and the motor is called a shunt motor. The rated rpm of the motor is 1500. The speed of the motor can be increased or decreased with the help of a drive. The current can be increased or decreased to set the speed. To reduce the speed of the motor mechanical load can be applied. Torque can be applied to reduce the speed of the motor. Under loaded conditions the speed of the motor reduces. Motor can be applied until it reaches the rated torque of the motor. If the load goes beyond the rated torque it starts drawing high curent and after some time it comes to stall. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTOR Shunt motors run at constant speed even when there is huge variation in the load. The Speed of the shunt-wound motors may be regulated in two ways. The first way is by putting resistance in series with the armature, through which the speed is decreased and the second method is by inserting resistance in the field by which the speed will vary as the motor is loaded. The characteristics of a shunt-wound motor is that it has a very good speed regulation, and is aconstant speed motor, though the speed slightly decreases as load is increased. Shunt-wound motors are used mostly in industrial and automotive applications where accurate measurement of Torque, Speed are highly necessary. EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER A dynamometer is a device used to load the motor which also indicates the torque. The dynamometer used in this project works on hysteresis brake principle. The dynamometer system mainly consists of three parts: Dynamometer Torque indicator Power Supply Eddy current dynamometers are the actuated braking systems. This braking system develops load torque with the interaction from the dc magnetic field produced by the windings on the stator and induced eddy currents in the rotor. When the magnetic field is added around the rotor it causes eddy currents. These eddy currents help in slowing down the speed. Dynamometer01CJC.svg The torque developed in the dynamometer is transmitted to the stator which is free to rotate over an arc and this is used to deflect a spring balance and so the torque can be directly measured on a scale. Eddy current dynamometer comes with a rotary potentiometer which works on the principle ROTARY POTENTIOMETER Rotary potentiometers come with a spiral resistive strip, and a wiper which moves axially as it rotates. As the wiper moves across the resistive strip resistance changes. VOLTAGE DIVIDER The voltage divider is used to know the output voltage when input voltage is given across the resistance. The ouput voltage depends upon the input voltage given and the resistor chosen. The resistor choosen is 10k? and an input voltage of 5v is given to the voltage divider. VOLTAGE DIVIDER The input voltage is given across the termicals 1 and 2 and the output voltage is taken across the terminals 2 and 3. Connect the voltmeter across the resistance . Now switch the output voltage off and manipulate the input voltage to 5v. Now switch on the output toggle button on . The input voltage is set to 5v. AC TACHOMETER: Tachometers are used to measure the angular speed of a rotating shaft. The speed is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). A tachometer works on the principle that it the speed of rotating shaft is determined by the variation in output frequency signal or voltage. As the speed increases the voltage level and the frequency increases. CONTACT TYPE AC TACHOMETER The above fig shows the tachometer coupled to the motor. Ac tachometer used in the design is rated at 0.5v/100rpm. It shows that increase in speed increases. For every 100rpm variation the voltage increases by 0.5 rpm. The voltage signal from the ac tachometer is given to the simple presicion rectifier which further converts the signal to dc voltage. SIMPLE PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER A simple precision full wave rectifier converts the ac voltage to dc voltage. The simple precision full wave rectifier is built with operation amplifier which works on the principle of differential voltage. An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier which has differential inputs and a single output. Negative feed back controls the gain in the opamps. The output goes positive when the non inverting input(+) goes more positive than the inverting input (-) and vice versa When the input signal goes positive again, the op amps output voltage will take time to go back to zero, then to forward bias the diode and produce an output. The time taken is determined by the opamps slew rate. Slew rate is the maximum attainable range of the output voltage. Slew rate limits the highest frequency of the sin wave. The opamp 741 choosen in the project has a slew rate of 0.5v per micro seconds SIMPLE PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER The negative voltage at the input through the diode and resistor. The positive half cycles appear at the output of the second diode. When positive voltage is given the feed back is given by the diodes and hence negative cycles . The positive cycles and negative cycles are summed differentially to get the output voltage. The opamp 741 choosen in the project has a slew rate of 0.5v per micro seconds For measurement applications the signal has to be ripple free. Hence low pass filter can be used to achieve the signal free from ripples. RC LOW PASS FILTER Resistor Capacitance generally termed as RC circuits are used in filtering a signal waveform, thus changing the relative amounts of high frequency and low information in their output signals compared to their input signals. RC filter is a common application for smoothing a signal. The RC circuit has a capacitor and a resistor in which are connected in series. The charged capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor placed in series with it. This voltage across the capacitor is found through Kirchhoffs current law which says that the current coming from capacitor is equal the current flowing out through the resistor. The linear differential eqn. can be given by ANALOG TO DIGITAL CARD Analog to Digital conversion is interfacinf the analog I/O with the Digital I/O. ADC cnversion takes place in three stages. They are Sampling, Quantisation and encoding. The ADC card which is used in the Project is CIO-DASO8/JR-A0. SAMPLING The analog input cannot be directly sent to the pc. The ADC digitises the analog input signal continusly. The proper reconstruction of signal is possible only when the sampling rate is twice the highest frequency component. If the sampling rate is under that the problem of Alaising occurs. To eleminate the problems of aliasing the signal must be sampled at a rate higher than Nyquist frequency rate. The fig shows the sampling rates and the construction of the signal. If a signal is sampled at too low rate perfect reconstruction of signal is nt possible which results in the loss of data. QUANTISATION Quantisation represents the signal in discrete and certainj voltage levels. Quantisation actually is approximating the signals to the lowest possible range. The fig below shows the sampling of a singal which is then quatises indicated by a red line. The quantization is necessary as during the sampling the small range of signals may not be digitised. This results in loss of information. By approximating the values the reconstruction of signal is perfect. CODING Coding is the process of converting the sampled signals to n bits which are represented by 0 and 1s. These bits represent certain voltage levels which is given by the resolution. SPECIFICATIONS When acquiring data to a computer, an analog to digital Conveter takes an analog signal and digitises the signal. The sigal is digitised to sertain binary numbers. These binary numbers represents respective voltage levels. Resolution refers to the number of binary levels ADC can represent a signal. The resolution of a n bit ADC can be by taking the value . The ADC card which is used in the Project is CIO-DASO8/JR-A0. DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL ARCHITECTURE Data acquisition and cntrol architectlog input is given to the pc via ADC which converts the analog input to digital input. The data can be transmitted bidirectionally with the help of data acquisition device. Labview Software is loaded in the pc which acquires the data with the help of built in libraraies. INSTACAL Instacal is software which manages the data acquisition hardware. It is used in calibration of the boards attached. It scans all the internal registers and the electronic equipment and if any fault found error messages are shown. The ADC is calibrated with the help of instacal to check whether the data logger is accurate or not. CHAPTER 5 LABVIEW Labview environment is opened by when new VI is selected from the start up screen. The file menu contains commands for file manipulations. Edit menu is used to modify the block diagram and front panel objects. By default the undo or redo settings for a VI are 8. It can be manipulated as per the requirement. Operate menu acts in running or stopping a VI or to change the settings of VI. The tools menu acts as interface in communicating with the data acquisition boards to build the applications and in enabling the web server. WINDOW INTRODUCTION Labview programming is mainly divided into two panels. The first one is the Front Panel and all the controls and indicators are in l